References and select bibliography
10.1. The results of the Word Find reading test and the Read Aloud individual reading tests administered to grade 3, 4 and 6 pupils suggest that the reading ability in English of most pupils is lower than that needed to cope with their English coursebooks, and lower than their teachers estimate it.
10.2. The results of the Word Find reading test indicate that in the 5 schools tested there was inadequate comprehension of texts judged to be at their level on the part of:
- approximately 85% of Grade 3 pupils
- approximately 88% of Grade 4 pupils
- approximately 74% of Grade 6 pupils
The reading ability of Grade 3 and Grade 4 pupils gives particular cause for concern. Although Grade 6 pupils have for the most part adequate comprehension of texts from Grade 3 and 4 levels, it is difficult to see how such limited ability can enable them to read to learn in other subject areas.
10.3. The findings of the individual Read Aloud tests, although more impressionistic, confirm the results of Word Find, in that they suggest the majority of pupils in Grades 3 and 4 have considerable difficulty with material deemed appropriate to their level. Grade 6 pupils also have problems, although they seem again to cope with material below their level. In addition, many pupils at all levels appear to have difficulty in making appropriate inferences in reading. This may be a function of the preponderance of "plain sense" reference questions that occur in their books and in their classes.
10.4. As far as methodology of teaching reading is concerned, the majority of teachers seem to give too much prominence to "look and say" methods which stress accuracy of reading aloud, rather than promoting reading as a process of acquiring meaning from text. Much teacher training seems to be devoted to going through the steps in the Teachers' Handbooks and does not foster a flexible response on the part of the teachers to difficulties that their learners might encounter in reading.
10.5. To compound the problems engendered by the predominant classroom methodology, there are other factors that aggravate the situation. The provision of course books is inadequate, so that even those children who learn to read from the blackboard are unable to undergo the practice necessary to make them fluent readers. In the five schools tested there was some suggestion that schools with better book provision achieved higher test scores. However, book provision may be ameliorated by the new books for the incoming Zambia Basic Education Course where the intention is that there should be one book between two pupils. As far as class size is concerned, classes are indeed large, but they are not overwhelmingly so. According to Focus on Learning (MOE, 1992) the average for all primary schools is 39.9. Nonetheless, there is local variation, and in the schools visited the problem seemed most acute in urban areas. However, test scores suggest that class size per se is not a determining factor in achievement. The quality of teaching is clearly crucial, and the poor test results may be aggravated by a shortage of trained teachers in schools. However, a larger sample of schools, with larger differences between factors being investigated, would be needed to come to firmer conclusions.
10.6. Although disquieting, the situation in Zambian primary schools is not entirely gloomy. Pupils certainly make progress over time, and there is a small number of pupils who do seem to read adequately at their level, despite the circumstances. If more of their colleagues are to achieve satisfactory standards however, attention should be given to the following:
First, more teachers should see reading as a process of meaning making, and not as a process of "barking at print". The approach in most classes that I observed appears to be a barrier to the pupils' progress. A more meaning-oriented approach would also require teachers to attend to the presentation of meaning of new language and to develop techniques for the checking of meaning.
There are implications here for teacher trainers. They too need to appreciate the importance of seeing reading as essentially concerned with meaning. It may well be that the first priority in courses should be to provide the trainers themselves with courses that expose them a variety of meaning-oriented approaches to reading.
This change of approach may be helped by the new teaching material which embodies a methodology encouraging teachers and pupils to think of reading as a process of obtaining information and as an opportunity to be communicated with, rather than a process of parrotting the book or the teacher.
Recommendation 1: That inservice methodology sessions should be provided for primary school teachers on a systematic basis and that it should be ensured that a "meaning making" approach to reading is integrated into the sessions.
Recommendation 2: In pre-service teacher training in the colleges it should be ensured that a "meaning making" approach to the teaching of reading is given prominence, and that trainees are equipped with appropriate techniques for presenting meaning and checking understanding, and for reacting to pupils who encounter difficulty with texts.
10.7. The present study presents a description of the current situation in 5 schools. It suggests that problems are acute in Grades 3 and 4. Such a situation warrants confirmation through testing on a larger scale, and also testing annually over a number of years in order to see whether such measures as are taken are having any effect. This is precisely what is currently under way (Kelly, 1993) with the development of reading competency tests for use at Grade 4 which will aim to test annually a 1.5% sample of the enrolment.
Recommendation 3: that support be given to the Zambian project to develop reading achievement tests at Grade 4.
10.8. The Grade 7 primary school leaving examination has an important influence on teaching, especially in the upper primary school. In order to have a more positive washback effect on teaching, the examination should as far as is practical reflect a more comprehensive view of reading comprehension.
Recommendation 4: that specialist research be carried out into:
(a) specifying the reading comprehension abilities relevant to real-life situations, relevant to reading to learn in other school subjects, and also relevant to the needs of the majority of pupils who will end their schooling at Grade 7.(b) investigating examination formats which lend themselves to assessment of the selected abilities at Grade 7, bearing in mind the practicalities of the situation.
10.9. Pupils will not become fluent readers if they only read from the blackboard, or even if they only read texts from a coursebook if the reading is directed by the teacher in an excessively intensive manner (reading aloud, re-reading etc). It is widely agreed (and supported by research) that people become fluent readers through doing a lot of reading - there is no short cut. Providing primary school classes with large numbers of different titles of simple readers to be used in self-access library mode should be a potentially beneficial step. The current book donation from the ODA to grades 3, 4 and 5 in Zambian primary schools should have a beneficial effect, provided the books are accessible linguistically, and provided they match the interests of the learners. The supplementary class readers funded by UNICEF and being introduced for Grades 2, 3 and 4 should also help. In addition lower primary classes will be re-issued with sets of the old Zambia Primary Course Readers for use as supplementary readers. It would clearly be an advantage if there was coordination of approach towards these different supplies of books.
Recommendation 5: That appropriate MOE officials should ensure that there is a coordinated policy with respect to the use of the various categories of supplementary readers (re-issues of old ZPC readers, ODA book donation, UNICEF class readers).
10.10. There is at present much discussion on upgrading primary education in Zambia given impetus by the report Focus on Learning (MOE, 1992) which deals with the complete range of problems in this area. While recognising that the teaching of reading does not take place in a vacuum, there is still a case to be made for giving it special treatment. It is possible that with the UNICEF funded books, the ODA book donation and the new ZBEC coursebooks, the availability of books may be improved. However, a more meaning-oriented methodology should be considered an even more vital concomitant so as to make best use of the provision. Proficiency in reading is crucial to the whole educational operation and essential to the progress of children in the primary schools of Zambia.
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