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3. Executive Summary

A. Introduction
B. Factors affecting female participation in education
C. Recommendations
D. Conclusion
E. Matrix chart

A. Introduction

This project was carried out in three phases:

a. documentary research and field visit planning;
b. six field study visits (one in 1989 and five in 1990)
c. analysis of information gathered and compilation of report.

The period involved was from June 1989 to December 1990, inclusive, during which the researchers were on partial release from their duties at the University of Hull. The countries, selected jointly by the researchers and by ODA were: Bangladesh, Cameroon, India, Jamaica, Sierra Leone and Vanuatu, making two each from Africa, Asia and the Tropical Island Zones. In each location, in addition to interviewing key personnel and consulting local documentation, the researchers carried out two empirical surveys: a major exercise with primary school pupils to ascertain some of their perceptions on gender and education, and a minor exercise with students, mainly those training to be primary teachers for the same purpose. The outcomes contribute to the case study sections below (5.1 to 5.6), from which the summaries of factors influencing female participation in education that appear in the General Report (4D (b) below) and in this executive summary (3B (b) and (c) below) have been distilled.

B. Factors affecting female participation in education

a. Selection
b. Outcomes
c. Matrix Chart

a. Selection

The general level of factor identification was indicated by the ODA brief (e.g. 'social', 'economic', 'religious'). Additions were made both in consultation with ODA during the planning phase and on the initiative of the researchers, particularly as a result of the experience of the first field visit. The final list selected was: geographical, socio-cultural, health, economic, religious, legal, political/administrative, educational and initiatives. In reality it has to be recognised that there is considerable overlap between these factors and their influence on the problem in question, and in part for this reason the order in which the factors are discussed below is not knowingly significant.

b. Outcomes

These are discussed in detail below, as already indicated, but may be briefly summarised here as follows:

i. Geographical
The considerable spatial disparity, and in some cases incompleteness, of institutional provision (even at primary level) relates directly to difficulties of physical access which adversely affect girls more than boys; there is an overall and profound urban/rural dichotomy which favours towns and cities, especially in respect of secondary school (and especially single sex) provision for girls; patterns of transportation and migration affect educational provision and take up, again normally disadvantaging females and in some cases extreme physical difficulties, such as flooding and other hazards act in the same way. The influence of this factor can only be overcome by more sophisticated and multivariate spatial analysis of educational needs and the planning and implementation of integrated development projects as a result. Educational planning on its own would be futile.
ii. Socio-Cultural
A major deterrent to female take up and follow through of educational opportunities (even when these are available) is a near universal fundamental cultural bias in favour of males. The widespread operation of patriarchal systems of social organisation; of customary early marriage; of the incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage); of heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas); a generally lower regard for the value of female life, all combine though differentially in each case, to adversely affect the participation of girls and women in formal education. To this list may be added problems of seclusion and security in some areas. Such long standing constraints result in a dearth of female role models that could challenge the traditional one that is clearly acquired by both sexes at a very early age. The influence of this factor can only be overcome, inter alia by a profound change of attitude on the part of influential males, and in some countries of traditionally minded powerful females in key family positions.
iii. Health
In general the effect of poverty and malnutrition on the health of school age children falls harder on girls than boys. Boys may get preferential feeding, while girls (who have a heavier domestic work load) are more likely to be undernourished. Even if they get to school, this adversely affects their performance and therefore retention rate. Health problems associated with pregnancy, especially for adolescent girls, obviously have a negative effect, as do rising trends of sexual activity in the younger generations where these occur. Problems associated with family size and family planning are widespread in relation to possible participation in education and imply the need for sex/health education at school level. It is clear that the health factor, though partly hidden and indirect in effect is a very significant one in respect of the quality of (young) female participation in education as well as the quantity of it
iv. Economic
Together with the fundamental socio-cultural bias in favour of males, the economic factor, especially in terms of grinding poverty and hunger, is probably the most influential in adversely affecting female participation in education, especially in rural areas. In such harsh economic circumstances, both direct and hidden costs to a family of sending daughters to school are perceived by parents to be prohibitive in terms of the provision of books, paper and uniforms/clothing (important for social reasons) as well as the loss of vital help at home and on the land. In most cases the contribution of females is unpaid and they may have little or no experience of the handling of money which further reduces their status and power, but increases their vulnerability. Because of the patriarchal and patrilocal predominance, investment in a girl's schooling is wasteful since it benefits the family into which a girl marries rather than her own. In the more privileged classes investment in the education of females may be an advantage in 'marrying well'. This further increases the urban/rural gap. Vocational education which might relate to employment prospects, is everywhere weak and under-valued, but especially so in respect of the interests of girls. The apparent inability of some countries to resource their schools and even to pay their teachers regularly leads to low morale, teacher absenteeism and parental disenchantment.
v. Religious
Although in general acting indirectly, the religious factor is on balance a positive one, though it is often overcome by the fundamental socio-cultural bias in favour of males. The fact that most religious practitioners and leaders are male makes for a powerful image in favour of that sex, and it would be a very helpful move if religious leaders of all faiths and denominations were to speak out strongly in support of the female cause. Christian missions have, in various areas, had a most positive effect on female education and literacy levels, though some have a legacy of harsh sanctions in respect of early pregnancy. In Islamic areas the situation is generally not so supportive but a number of positive trends were apparent. The religious significance of sons in the Hindu family, while still operative, no longer seems in itself to disadvantage daughters. Often in contrast to the state system, and especially- at secondary level, denominational schools are well organised and resourced, attracting stable, well qualified staff. This weighs heavily with parents when deciding whether or not to send their daughters to schools, especially since boarding facilities tend to be more favourable and secure.
vi. Legal
Again this factor acts mainly indirectly. Most countries have now legislated for equal status in respect of sex, but this is usually a recent innovation and traditional sanctions often still operate unchallenged. So there are still important areas where the law could be reformed further to encourage compliance and the system of justice strengthened to ensure that this actually happens. In many rural areas long standing societal rules constraining females are still operative, as is the case with condoning early marriage. The acquisition of minimum legal knowledge and support in such areas as: gaming justice and compensation for assault; understanding letters and contracts; arguing for educational provision according to the law, and challenging disadvantageous pressures in respect of marriage, divorce and inheritance could be very helpful to the female cause. There must be concern over the legality of the employment of (young) children, particularly girls, and the dominance of males in the legal profession. The encouragement and support for more females to seek and develop careers in various areas of this profession could be a very significant development in respect of female participation in education.
vii. Political/Administrative
Although policies exist in most cases for such developments as universal primary education, equal educational opportunities in terms of gender and the eradication of gender bias from texts and other materials, the political will to carry these through seems to be weak in the face of severe economic constraint. The creation of Ministries or Bureaux of Womens' Affairs appears to be counter productive, and the poor quality of local administrative/advisory staff and resources renders such government initiatives as do occur, relatively ineffective. The record of NGOs is markedly better, and those governments that enable NGOs to operate in favour of increased female participation are to be commended. In some cases where strong political dichotomies or other such disparities exist even elite females may be disadvantaged by being in the 'wrong' camp, and their potential contribution to national development and the role of females in general to that end may be lost. Language policies can adversely affect female participation in that where vernaculars have no status, and schooling is either absent or very poor, women and girls remain 'trapped'. As with the churches, political leaders are almost always male, and until considerably more women break into the most influential echelons of power, the question of low female participation in education and its implications for national development may well remain on the sidelines.
viii. Educational
This factor itself can be a deterrent to female participation in schooling. Difficulties of accessibility, lack of resources and low teacher quality and morale are widespread. In particular the lack of female primary teachers in rural areas is a real problem. Parents are, in some countries, very reluctant indeed to send daughters to school if there is no female teacher, and the facilities for the accommodation and security of such teachers are usually absent or inadequate. The organisation of schooling in terms of the daily and seasonal imperatives of local economies usually renders it dysfunctional, and the curriculum is often unattractive in instrumental terms. At secondary level, in addition to the lack of (accessible) places, problems of cost, direct and hidden are acute, and there is a considerable need for more single-sex (girls) schools, some with secure boarding facilities and scholarship schemes to enable participation. Vocational education is weak and schemes open to girls in this field are particularly useful. There is still a widespread problem of gender bias in books and materials.
ix. Initiatives
In all the countries concerned, significant initiatives aiming to address aspects of the problem of female participation in education were noted. Some acted directly, others indirectly, but collectively they must be considered as a factor affecting the issue. This is important, since one must recognise the considerable efforts made by individuals and organisations in this regard in recent decades. Some governments have made substantial efforts to increase female enrolment at primary level in rural areas by building more (accessible) schools and enacting laws to encourage the employment of female teachers in such schools (e.g. Operation Blackboard in India). Some governments have instituted feeding schemes to alleviate problems of malnutrition. In some cases governments have been very cooperative in enabling NGOs to operate substantial schemes of income generation and primary schooling for rural females (e.g. Bangladesh). Religious and related organisations have prompted new opportunities for girls in need, such as the YWCA technical/vocational institute for girls in Jamaica. Agencies have been developed by individuals and groups to address issues of early pregnancy and harassment (e.g. the Crisis Centres and the work of Sisteren in Jamaica), and also to encourage women to become involved in politics by providing suitable skills training (e.g. The Vanuatu Council of Women).

c. Matrix Chart

In order to see how summaries of each of the factors briefly discussed above can be compared across the six national cases, a matrix chart may be found at the end of this executive summary.

C. Recommendations

a) Preamble
b) List of Major Recommendations

a) Preamble

The following recommendations are not in any order of priority. Each is followed by the initial capital letter(s) of the names of the countries to which it refers (B: Bangladesh; C: Cameroon; I: India; J: Jamaica; SL: Sierra Leone, V: Vanuatu). Initially recommendations arose in relation to each case. Further consideration and comparison led to the generalisation of a number of recommendations across more than one case. Recommendations are restated at the end of each of the cases in Section 5 below, (see also contents page above), sometimes adjusted to the specific case in question.

b) List of Major Recommendations

i.

that increased support be given to NGOs involved in (non-formal) primary education projects which positively discriminate in favour of the participation of girls (B, C, I, SL);

ii.

that, wherever possible, schemes for the enhancement of female participation in schooling, especially in rural areas, be part of an integrated and co-ordinated development including such other aspects as health, environment and economy (B, C, I, SL);

iii.

that projects be developed and supported that address pre-school child care needs and adult literacy/skills development needs, in an integrated and co-ordinate way (B, C, I, SL, V);

iv.

that aid be considered for the provision of books, other learning materials, uniforms (or other necessary clothing) and fees to enable more girls to participate in schooling at both primary and secondary levels (B, C, I, SL, V);

v.

that support be given to the construction of more single-sex schools for girls with adequate residential facilities for pupils and female teachers in those locations where this is necessary for either environmental or social or cultural reasons (B, C, I, SL);

vi.

that aid be provided for more scholarships to enable girls from poorer economic backgrounds to attend secondary school, whether boarding or otherwise (B, C, I, SL, V);

vii.

that research funding be made available to examine the various aspects of gender and education relating to the all-age and new secondary schools of Jamaica (J);

viii.

that positive incentives, such as more secondary scholarships for girls might be considered to go along with the present expansion of the junior secondary sector (V);

ix.

that NGOs be encouraged to submit schemes for aid approval that would have the effect of improving the rate of progression of girls from primary to secondary schooling (B, C, I, SL);

x.

that support be given to projects designed to eliminate gender bias from textbooks and other learning materials especially at primary and secondary level, but also in respect of teacher education and training (B, C, I, J. SL, V);

xi.

the funding be considered for improvements in the provision of teacher education and training especially for primary school work, that would encourage greater female participation and include more residential accommodation for female students (B, I);

xii.

that aid should be considered for the upgrading of technical and vocational education for both sexes, partly (though not exclusively) as a 'second chance' opportunity of dropouts from the formal system. In some cases this could be part of a community based skills development programme (B, C, I, J, SL, V);

xiii.

that support be considered for the greater participation of anglophone students, and especially females in higher education in the Cameroons (C);

xiv.

that efforts be supported to raise the level of male awareness of the community and family economic benefits likely to arise from increased participation of women and girls in educational and income-generating activities (B, C, I, SL, V);

xv.

that aid be considered for credible womens' movements with track records of support for aspects of education and training, both formal and non-formal (B, C, I, J, SL, V);

xvi.

that support be given to the upgrading of traditional/subsistence agricultural practices, especially where those involve women and girls to a significant extent (B, C, I, SL, V);

xvii.

that schemes be supported to enhance health and sex education for adolescents with a view to reducing the occurrence of teenage pregnancies and the incidence of related medical and health problems (C, J, SL);

xviii.

that family planning programmes be supported which include the educational needs of teenage mothers during and after confinement (C, J, SL);

xix.

that support be considered for feeding schemes in primary and secondary schools where such a facility might encourage and enable the poorest families to send their boys and girls to school (B, C, I, J. SL)

xx.

that aid be provided to improve the level of educational policy implementation at the local level through the training of significant numbers of personnel in systems of implementation and delivery. Their role would be a practical one of animation, advice and support rather than mere administration. The opportunity should be taken to include a considerable number of women in such programmes of training and subsequent employment (B, C, I, J, SL);

xxi.

that assistance be provided to enable the school day and the school year to be adjusted to the realities of rural life and the demands of rural economies on child labour (B, C, I, SL);

xxii.

that aid be given for resolving the urgent and particular problem of the security of female teachers especially in rural areas, by providing adequate accommodation and protection (B, I);

xxiii.

that support be considered for rationalising the provision of schooling in large cities such as Freetown, Kingston and Yaounde where a combination of rapid urbanisation, historical locational legacies; severe transport problems and increasing complexity in patterns of demand are adversely affecting efficient delivery of schooling and ease of physical access for girls.

D. Conclusion

While acknowledging that our study confirms the near universal, and especially in rural areas, deeply rooted incidence of female disadvantage in education, the researchers would also wish to mention the numerous efforts being made in all case countries to confront the problem. We hope that the recommendations made above will be helpful in maintaining and increasing the effort to assist increased female participation, especially at primary and secondary level, and we would like to see more research carried out with a view to supporting this objective.

E. Matrix chart

Country

BANGLADESH

CAMEROON

INDIA
(with special reference to Gujarat and Orissa)

Factors

Geographical

Gross disparities in spatial pattern of school provision. Stark rural/urban dichotomy; secondary single sex in towns. Rainy season effects severe physical and economic disruption.

'Africa in miniature', from desert to rain forest. A mosaic of indigenous cultures overlain by a colonial dichotomy:. anglophone and francophone. Also spatial and religious variation in respect of Christian denominations and Islam.

Immense diversity even within Gujarat and Orissa. Massive rural/urban dichotomy problems of isolation and opening up. Access to schooling incomplete despite overlapping networks. Distance to school still a problem despite progress made.

Socio-cultural

Fundamental cultural bias against females. Patriarchal systems operate against girls' schooling. Means of protection against assault is crucial. Many schools too far from home for girls. The attitude of fathers is very significant indeed.

Not an extreme case, but females still marginalised. Girls needed more at home; links between bride price and schooling. Growing problems of early pregnancy and delinquency in towns. Promotion limited for professional females.

Patriarchal system prevails in most areas, which gives preference to boys' education. Generally low valuation of female life. Systems of caste tribe and class all have influence. Local and rural elites are significant, often conservative.

Health

The effect of widespread poverty in contributing to malnutrition is worse for girls, and the physical effects of young pregnancies can be severe. Enhanced food programme would be helpful.

Sexually precocious youth culture in towns could bring attendant health problems, including the damaging physical effects of young pregnancies.

Numerous poverty related conditions, including blindness, severely constrain schooling in rural areas. High female mortality still partly due to infanticide and malnutrition.

Economic

Very low economic profile for the majority cannot overcome the direct and hidden coats of school. Child labour is a key element in family survival. Adult males not yet supportive of females gaining new skills and status.

Rapidly declining situation, but women actively involved in the money economy both urban and rural, which creates tension between school and work in adolescence External aid to cash crop sector may sometimes undermine the important work of women in the subsistence or locally marketed agricultural sectors, and adversely affect their status.

Grinding poverty and hunger has both rural and urban variants and a negative effect on girls' schooling. Worsening situation for female work force. Technical development aid may undermine women in that it tends to be directed to men, thereby enhancing the male status and economic position.

Religious

Not a direct factor, but invoked by those who oppose the education and development of females. Religious leaders need to espouse the female cause for the general good.

Considerably disparity in mission provision; Catholic: Protestant has differential effect for adolescent girls. In theory both Christian and Islamic movements are supportive of female schooling, but in practice development has been slower in the (Islamic) north.

Indirect effects only, and in any case a multi-religious context. Religious significance of the son in Hindu society may disadvantage girls.

Legal

Women are statutory minors, therefore dependent. Illiteracy leaves females impotent to invoke the laws of protection against assault, constraint and earls marriage. Dowry problems. Need to strengthen legal support.

Modern law provides for equal opportunity, but customary law prevails in favour of males. Early marriage is illegal but accepted if both families are agreed.

There are long standing laws against child employment, but often disregarded. In some groups women are property, and this low status severely constrains their access to education. Women need more legal support.

Political-Administrative

Apparent lack of political will to address the problem, though general policy aims are helpful. The poor and unreliable nature of local administration and support is a crucially weak link.

Anglophone/Francophone 'divide' still significant, leading to exodus of qualified anglophones. Secondary sector incomplete in some rural areas. It is felt that too much aid goes to (francophone) higher education, and perhaps not enough to primary.

Federal/State/Local hierarchy leads to evaporation of political will to deal with female disadvantage. Power of local elders still significant, but local educational administration is weak.

Educational

The system is incomplete, therefore difficult of access to girls; and a consequent shortage of female teachers in rural areas results. Not such a problem in urban areas where middle class girls are proceeding to university and outscoring men.

Extremely varied enrolment and wastage patterns. Very high primary class numbers due to high birth rate. Long school day at odds with family work needs. Technical/Vocational sector is very weak.

Provided by a number of systems but provision still disparate and incomplete. Massive urban/rural dichotomy. Very high illiteracy rate among rural women but urban middle class girls achieving well in universities

Initiatives

Many good non-formal NGO schemes in rural areas, especially BRAC. Also good work at secondary level for girls by Asia Foundation/USAID. Acceptance of female teacher trainees with lower grades than men could be counter-productive.

Ministry is flexible over age of female enrolment. There is a Ministry of Women's Affairs, though underfunded and weak, and numerous schemes for dropout girls. OIC model in Buea (vocational) is effective.

Numerous initiatives involving NGOs in development work for rural women and young children. Also Federal Ministry scheme Operation Blackboard to increase number of rural primary places and female teachers.

Country

JAMAICA

SIERRA LEONE

VANUATU

Factors

Geographical

Considerable disparity of provision despite small scale, due to urban/rural juxtaposition, lack of catchments and historical locations of prestigious schools. Complicated migrations in and out of urban areas, also to sec. schools.

Christian/Moslem division, also very marked urban rural dichotomy with capital city Freetown markedly different from the rest of SL. Very poor interior road network with incomplete primary system difficult of access.

Immense diversity between and within each island. Usual geographical problems of small archipelago states. Some locations face extreme isolation urban/rural dichotomy is stark. Core/ periphery problems for education.

Socio-cultural

Matrifocal system favours females. Girls have positive role models at home and at school. But there is a major problem of teenage pregnancies and a continued male dominance in political and business fields.

Traditional female roles still upheld and ceremonially legitimised. Mature rural girls obliged to marry. Much early marriage and teenage pregnancy. Some liaisons with older men to safeguard education and fund it, mainly Freetown area.

Many cultures and languages plus anglophone/francophone dichotomy. Females have lower status than males in all groups. Low aspirations among rural girls but some urban professionals. May miss out on French/English, even Bislama, if they do not attend school.

Health

Damaging medical effects of early child bearing, but female life expectancy still higher than male. Possibility of stress associated with the crucial Common Entrance examination.

Many health problems linked with extreme poverty and high levels of early sexual activity. Generally low levels of under-nourishment among girls affects educational performance adversely.

High birth rates and large families in rural areas puts pressure on inadequate health provision. Female mortality is higher than male, which is unusual in global terms.

Economic

Jamaican women are used to handling money and controlling family budgets. Educated females, including qualified teachers move into modern sector jobs. Large urban poverty zones.

Widespread poverty creates direct and hidden costs which work against girls' schooling especially in rural regions. Both girls and boys involved in petty trading. There are very few income generating jobs for women in rural areas.

Girls traditionally work on the land; 'gardens' are significant to family economies. Hidden costs of education favour the schooling of boys in the rural societies but in towns girls are educated for modern sector jobs.

Religious

Indirect effect in respect of disparate mission legacy and contemporary denominational input. Generally positive for girls, though some criticism of male authority model in Christian churches.

Not a direct factor against female education, though some discriminatory customs are blamed on religion especially Islam. In fact both Islamic and Christian organisations have been supportive of girls' education.

Disparate and varied mission legacy, but generally supportive of girls' schooling. Traditional (kastom) religion not so supportive, and in fact reinforces low female status.

Legal

Although schooling not being compulsory is not unique to Jamaica, it may well in this case affect the poor enrolment and attendance rates of boys in the lower socio-economic sectors.

Modern laws are supportive, though not always enforced, but traditional custom is stronger in rural regions and tends to act against female educational opportunity.

Minimum age of marriage law (18) sometimes disregarded in rural areas where chiefs maintain traditional laws which favour males. Family Law Bill is under consideration.

Political-Administrative

Ministry has an indirect, facilitating/mediating role. Power lies with School Governing Bodies who it is claimed favour male appointments at senior level. Ministry decentralisation may boost community involvement.

Political will is weak in meeting educational needs of the majority; system only partly operative. Women's position is weak and The Women's Bureau has inadequate funding. Political problems of indigenous language status.

Traditionally females are not permitted to speak in public but this is changing. There is said to be regional/island bias in appointments but women face discrimination everywhere. Some pro female pressure groups.

Educational

There is en 'educational culture', and strong social class influence. The Common Entrance examination selecting for high school dominates the system, and for the majority population, girls gain more places than boys. But sex bias in texts.

Underfunded incomplete system. Late payment of teachers adversely affects morale and leads to absenteeism. System of repeating classes increases chances of female dropout. The curriculum could be more relevant.

Primary sector almost complete, plus a growing private nursery feeder system, but geographical factors make secondary participation difficult especially for girls. Also the element of selection in the junior secondary sector is adverse, despite the present expansion.

Initiatives

Crisis centres for pregnant teenagers are effective but need more support. The YWCA Vocational Education Institute excellent as a second chance for drop-out girls. UWI has a 'Women in Development' programme.

Large birth control programme by IPPF. Various NGO activities in support of rural women. New Basic Education Reform aims to provide work-oriented curriculum. Several women's organisations opening up.

Much private effort to develop the nursery sector. Vanuatu Council of Women is an active and successful pressure group working for better health, schooling and legal support for women and girls.

i.	that increased support be given to NGOs involved in (non-formal) primary education projects which positively discriminate in favour of the participation of girls (B, C, I, SL);
ii.	that, wherever possible, schemes for the enhancement of female participation in schooling, especially in rural areas, be part of an integrated and co-ordinated development including such other aspects as health, environment and economy (B, C, I, SL);
iii.	that projects be developed and supported that address pre-school child care needs and adult literacy/skills development needs, in an integrated and co-ordinate way (B, C, I, SL, V);
iv.	that aid be considered for the provision of books, other learning materials, uniforms (or other necessary clothing) and fees to enable more girls to participate in schooling at both primary and secondary levels (B, C, I, SL, V);
v.	that support be given to the construction of more single-sex schools for girls with adequate residential facilities for pupils and female teachers in those locations where this is necessary for either environmental or social or cultural reasons (B, C, I, SL);
vi.	that aid be provided for more scholarships to enable girls from poorer economic backgrounds to attend secondary school, whether boarding or otherwise (B, C, I, SL, V);
vii.	that research funding be made available to examine the various aspects of gender and education relating to the all-age and new secondary schools of Jamaica (J);
viii.	that positive incentives, such as more secondary scholarships for girls might be considered to go along with the present expansion of the junior secondary sector (V);
ix.	that NGOs be encouraged to submit schemes for aid approval that would have the effect of improving the rate of progression of girls from primary to secondary schooling (B, C, I, SL);
x.	that support be given to projects designed to eliminate gender bias from textbooks and other learning materials especially at primary and secondary level, but also in respect of teacher education and training (B, C, I, J. SL, V);
xi.	the funding be considered for improvements in the provision of teacher education and training especially for primary school work, that would encourage greater female participation and include more residential accommodation for female students (B, I);
xii.	that aid should be considered for the upgrading of technical and vocational education for both sexes, partly (though not exclusively) as a 'second chance' opportunity of dropouts from the formal system. In some cases this could be part of a community based skills development programme (B, C, I, J, SL, V);
xiii.	that support be considered for the greater participation of anglophone students, and especially females in higher education in the Cameroons (C);
xiv.	that efforts be supported to raise the level of male awareness of the community and family economic benefits likely to arise from increased participation of women and girls in educational and income-generating activities (B, C, I, SL, V);
xv.	that aid be considered for credible womens' movements with track records of support for aspects of education and training, both formal and non-formal (B, C, I, J, SL, V);
xvi.	that support be given to the upgrading of traditional/subsistence agricultural practices, especially where those involve women and girls to a significant extent (B, C, I, SL, V);
xvii.	that schemes be supported to enhance health and sex education for adolescents with a view to reducing the occurrence of teenage pregnancies and the incidence of related medical and health problems (C, J, SL);
xviii.	that family planning programmes be supported which include the educational needs of teenage mothers during and after confinement (C, J, SL);
xix.	that support be considered for feeding schemes in primary and secondary schools where such a facility might encourage and enable the poorest families to send their boys and girls to school (B, C, I, J. SL)
xx.	that aid be provided to improve the level of educational policy implementation at the local level through the training of significant numbers of personnel in systems of implementation and delivery. Their role would be a practical one of animation, advice and support rather than mere administration. The opportunity should be taken to include a considerable number of women in such programmes of training and subsequent employment (B, C, I, J, SL);
xxi.	that assistance be provided to enable the school day and the school year to be adjusted to the realities of rural life and the demands of rural economies on child labour (B, C, I, SL);
xxii.	that aid be given for resolving the urgent and particular problem of the security of female teachers especially in rural areas, by providing adequate accommodation and protection (B, I);
xxiii.	that support be considered for rationalising the provision of schooling in large cities such as Freetown, Kingston and Yaounde where a combination of rapid urbanisation, historical locational legacies; severe transport problems and increasing complexity in patterns of demand are adversely affecting efficient delivery of schooling and ease of physical access for girls.

Country	BANGLADESH	CAMEROON	INDIA (with special reference to Gujarat and Orissa)
Factors
Geographical	Gross disparities in spatial pattern of school provision. Stark rural/urban dichotomy; secondary single sex in towns. Rainy season effects severe physical and economic disruption.	'Africa in miniature', from desert to rain forest. A mosaic of indigenous cultures overlain by a colonial dichotomy:. anglophone and francophone. Also spatial and religious variation in respect of Christian denominations and Islam.	Immense diversity even within Gujarat and Orissa. Massive rural/urban dichotomy problems of isolation and opening up. Access to schooling incomplete despite overlapping networks. Distance to school still a problem despite progress made.
Socio-cultural	Fundamental cultural bias against females. Patriarchal systems operate against girls' schooling. Means of protection against assault is crucial. Many schools too far from home for girls. The attitude of fathers is very significant indeed.	Not an extreme case, but females still marginalised. Girls needed more at home; links between bride price and schooling. Growing problems of early pregnancy and delinquency in towns. Promotion limited for professional females.	Patriarchal system prevails in most areas, which gives preference to boys' education. Generally low valuation of female life. Systems of caste tribe and class all have influence. Local and rural elites are significant, often conservative.
Health	The effect of widespread poverty in contributing to malnutrition is worse for girls, and the physical effects of young pregnancies can be severe. Enhanced food programme would be helpful.	Sexually precocious youth culture in towns could bring attendant health problems, including the damaging physical effects of young pregnancies.	Numerous poverty related conditions, including blindness, severely constrain schooling in rural areas. High female mortality still partly due to infanticide and malnutrition.
Economic	Very low economic profile for the majority cannot overcome the direct and hidden coats of school. Child labour is a key element in family survival. Adult males not yet supportive of females gaining new skills and status.	Rapidly declining situation, but women actively involved in the money economy both urban and rural, which creates tension between school and work in adolescence External aid to cash crop sector may sometimes undermine the important work of women in the subsistence or locally marketed agricultural sectors, and adversely affect their status.	Grinding poverty and hunger has both rural and urban variants and a negative effect on girls' schooling. Worsening situation for female work force. Technical development aid may undermine women in that it tends to be directed to men, thereby enhancing the male status and economic position.
Religious	Not a direct factor, but invoked by those who oppose the education and development of females. Religious leaders need to espouse the female cause for the general good.	Considerably disparity in mission provision; Catholic: Protestant has differential effect for adolescent girls. In theory both Christian and Islamic movements are supportive of female schooling, but in practice development has been slower in the (Islamic) north.	Indirect effects only, and in any case a multi-religious context. Religious significance of the son in Hindu society may disadvantage girls.
Legal	Women are statutory minors, therefore dependent. Illiteracy leaves females impotent to invoke the laws of protection against assault, constraint and earls marriage. Dowry problems. Need to strengthen legal support.	Modern law provides for equal opportunity, but customary law prevails in favour of males. Early marriage is illegal but accepted if both families are agreed.	There are long standing laws against child employment, but often disregarded. In some groups women are property, and this low status severely constrains their access to education. Women need more legal support.
Political-Administrative	Apparent lack of political will to address the problem, though general policy aims are helpful. The poor and unreliable nature of local administration and support is a crucially weak link.	Anglophone/Francophone 'divide' still significant, leading to exodus of qualified anglophones. Secondary sector incomplete in some rural areas. It is felt that too much aid goes to (francophone) higher education, and perhaps not enough to primary.	Federal/State/Local hierarchy leads to evaporation of political will to deal with female disadvantage. Power of local elders still significant, but local educational administration is weak.
Educational	The system is incomplete, therefore difficult of access to girls; and a consequent shortage of female teachers in rural areas results. Not such a problem in urban areas where middle class girls are proceeding to university and outscoring men.	Extremely varied enrolment and wastage patterns. Very high primary class numbers due to high birth rate. Long school day at odds with family work needs. Technical/Vocational sector is very weak.	Provided by a number of systems but provision still disparate and incomplete. Massive urban/rural dichotomy. Very high illiteracy rate among rural women but urban middle class girls achieving well in universities
Initiatives	Many good non-formal NGO schemes in rural areas, especially BRAC. Also good work at secondary level for girls by Asia Foundation/USAID. Acceptance of female teacher trainees with lower grades than men could be counter-productive.	Ministry is flexible over age of female enrolment. There is a Ministry of Women's Affairs, though underfunded and weak, and numerous schemes for dropout girls. OIC model in Buea (vocational) is effective.	Numerous initiatives involving NGOs in development work for rural women and young children. Also Federal Ministry scheme Operation Blackboard to increase number of rural primary places and female teachers.

Country	JAMAICA	SIERRA LEONE	VANUATU
Factors
Geographical	Considerable disparity of provision despite small scale, due to urban/rural juxtaposition, lack of catchments and historical locations of prestigious schools. Complicated migrations in and out of urban areas, also to sec. schools.	Christian/Moslem division, also very marked urban rural dichotomy with capital city Freetown markedly different from the rest of SL. Very poor interior road network with incomplete primary system difficult of access.	Immense diversity between and within each island. Usual geographical problems of small archipelago states. Some locations face extreme isolation urban/rural dichotomy is stark. Core/ periphery problems for education.
Socio-cultural	Matrifocal system favours females. Girls have positive role models at home and at school. But there is a major problem of teenage pregnancies and a continued male dominance in political and business fields.	Traditional female roles still upheld and ceremonially legitimised. Mature rural girls obliged to marry. Much early marriage and teenage pregnancy. Some liaisons with older men to safeguard education and fund it, mainly Freetown area.	Many cultures and languages plus anglophone/francophone dichotomy. Females have lower status than males in all groups. Low aspirations among rural girls but some urban professionals. May miss out on French/English, even Bislama, if they do not attend school.
Health	Damaging medical effects of early child bearing, but female life expectancy still higher than male. Possibility of stress associated with the crucial Common Entrance examination.	Many health problems linked with extreme poverty and high levels of early sexual activity. Generally low levels of under-nourishment among girls affects educational performance adversely.	High birth rates and large families in rural areas puts pressure on inadequate health provision. Female mortality is higher than male, which is unusual in global terms.
Economic	Jamaican women are used to handling money and controlling family budgets. Educated females, including qualified teachers move into modern sector jobs. Large urban poverty zones.	Widespread poverty creates direct and hidden costs which work against girls' schooling especially in rural regions. Both girls and boys involved in petty trading. There are very few income generating jobs for women in rural areas.	Girls traditionally work on the land; 'gardens' are significant to family economies. Hidden costs of education favour the schooling of boys in the rural societies but in towns girls are educated for modern sector jobs.
Religious	Indirect effect in respect of disparate mission legacy and contemporary denominational input. Generally positive for girls, though some criticism of male authority model in Christian churches.	Not a direct factor against female education, though some discriminatory customs are blamed on religion especially Islam. In fact both Islamic and Christian organisations have been supportive of girls' education.	Disparate and varied mission legacy, but generally supportive of girls' schooling. Traditional (kastom) religion not so supportive, and in fact reinforces low female status.
Legal	Although schooling not being compulsory is not unique to Jamaica, it may well in this case affect the poor enrolment and attendance rates of boys in the lower socio-economic sectors.	Modern laws are supportive, though not always enforced, but traditional custom is stronger in rural regions and tends to act against female educational opportunity.	Minimum age of marriage law (18) sometimes disregarded in rural areas where chiefs maintain traditional laws which favour males. Family Law Bill is under consideration.
Political-Administrative	Ministry has an indirect, facilitating/mediating role. Power lies with School Governing Bodies who it is claimed favour male appointments at senior level. Ministry decentralisation may boost community involvement.	Political will is weak in meeting educational needs of the majority; system only partly operative. Women's position is weak and The Women's Bureau has inadequate funding. Political problems of indigenous language status.	Traditionally females are not permitted to speak in public but this is changing. There is said to be regional/island bias in appointments but women face discrimination everywhere. Some pro female pressure groups.
Educational	There is en 'educational culture', and strong social class influence. The Common Entrance examination selecting for high school dominates the system, and for the majority population, girls gain more places than boys. But sex bias in texts.	Underfunded incomplete system. Late payment of teachers adversely affects morale and leads to absenteeism. System of repeating classes increases chances of female dropout. The curriculum could be more relevant.	Primary sector almost complete, plus a growing private nursery feeder system, but geographical factors make secondary participation difficult especially for girls. Also the element of selection in the junior secondary sector is adverse, despite the present expansion.
Initiatives	Crisis centres for pregnant teenagers are effective but need more support. The YWCA Vocational Education Institute excellent as a second chance for drop-out girls. UWI has a 'Women in Development' programme.	Large birth control programme by IPPF. Various NGO activities in support of rural women. New Basic Education Reform aims to provide work-oriented curriculum. Several women's organisations opening up.	Much private effort to develop the nursery sector. Vanuatu Council of Women is an active and successful pressure group working for better health, schooling and legal support for women and girls.