4.1 Research questions
4.2 Factors influencing the choice of methodologies used
4.3 Phase I: Postal survey
4.4 Phase II: In-depth research with farmer groups
4.5 Research techniques for in-depth research
4.6 Phase III: Regional overview of organisations sharing agricultural information
4.7 Data analysis
In order to site the research within the reality both of those providing printed information and those on the receiving end, differing samples were selected for study in three phases:
Phase I A world-wide postal survey of organisations and groups that had previously indicated their provision of grassroots information in developing countries, that were accessed through the Footsteps mailing list.Phase II In-depth qualitative research using participatory techniques and observation with a sample of autonomous farmer groups in Uganda and Ghana, investigating their access to agricultural information sources.
Phase III Informal visits to a sample of organisations in Uganda and Ghana providing printed agricultural information.
The postal survey was designed to examine a number of factors in information access and to reveal details of how information is shared through a variety of methods across a broad geographical distribution. Research with farmer groups both validated information gathered through the postal survey and investigated in more depth, not only issues arising from the survey, but also the formation, goals and operation of farmer groups and their access to agricultural information. Participatory research techniques were used with all groups to analyse the views and experiences of group members. An overview of organisations within the same geographical areas as the farmer groups, actually sharing or producing agricultural information, helped to reveal the effectiveness of distribution systems and information sharing.
Observations and qualitative data were, whenever possible, codified to enable ease of comparison between different farmer groups. Detailed observations both of physical and socio-cultural factors and of the interpersonal interactions within groups were made.
To understand the actual and potential availability of printed materials for grassroots farmers in developing countries, the following research questions were addressed:
· What sources of agricultural information, including printed material (eg: newsletters, books, etc) and verbal information (information transferred through extension officers, NGO, health workers, etc) are accessible to rural people's associations?· In what ways do rural people's associations identify and meet farmers' needs for information and skills?
· What is the nature of information flow within rural people's associations and how does it vary according to the nature and structure of associations?
A further set of research questions related to the production of printed agricultural information:
· What is the extent of the role of printed information on grassroots development within rural people's associations?· What are the key production stages, motivation and source materials employed by organisations producing printed agricultural materials for grassroots farmers?
· Whose agendas are met by locally generated materials; those resourcing them, those writing and producing them or those of the intended recipients?
· To what extent can locally generated materials promote and enhance literacy skills, particularly within isolated farmer groups?
· What are the key limiting factors in the production of locally generated materials?
Every farmer, no matter how remote their situation, is exposed to agricultural information from many different sources. Studying the attitude of farmers to printed information would be of little practical benefit unless this was done as part of an overall assessment of their sources of new information and their preferences. Also of relevance are the factors influencing organisations with the objective of enhancing the sharing of agricultural information through print. The research included a study of such organisations; their motivation, priorities and limitations and how the laws of supply and demand affect the production and distribution of their materials.
4.2.1 Group emphasis
The postal survey and in-depth research focused on examining the work of groups rather than individuals. The postal survey, usually sent to an organisation or group, asked for several people to answer jointly, allowing discussion of the answers. In-depth research selected only groups of farmers. The word 'group' requires clarification. For the purpose of this research, it is used initially as an all-encompassing term for people collaborating towards a common purpose. It thus incorporates teams within a large organisation or government department, small organisations and informal groupings of people.
Initially this focus on studying collective action was selected to investigate the flow of information among farmers and examine the potential of autonomous farmer groups. Later other benefits emerged: farmer groups enabled participatory research exercises to take place with ease as members of well established groups in Uganda and Ghana had few inhibitions about correcting or challenging a statement they did not agree with. They were quick to point out inconsistencies or to confer about an answer, providing validation for information given. It led to fascinating and unexpected details emerging on the social relationships and functioning of farmer groups which have a large bearing on agricultural information flow. Group interviews also allowed a much larger sample population to be incorporated in the research.
A 7 page postal survey was sent to 414 addresses world-wide in 1996, comprising:
· 264 respondents from the 1993 survey who had indicated their adaptation of information from Footsteps· 77 readers who had indicated their involvement in adapting and sharing information through recent correspondence
· 73 Footsteps readers selected at random from the mailing list as a control group.
Groups rather than individuals were selected. Only English speaking respondents were included in the survey and only addresses within developing countries selected.3
3 There were a few exceptions when an address used was for convenience, such as mail for Haiti routed through USA and material for broadcasting by FEBA radio in Southern Africa being sent via UK.
Some clear trends emerged from the postal survey indicating areas of interest for further investigation. Postal surveys are unlikely to reveal the delicate interplay of factors which might explain why some groups either ignore or accept and adopt outside information whilst others pass on selected information, and still others take a step further in making the information their own, adapting it to fit their own needs and, in the process, sometimes producing locally generated materials. The second phase of research examined the perspectives of recipients of information rather than those providing information. The second phase:
· explored in depth the sources and types of information accessed by grassroots farmers· identified the characteristics of individuals and groups who effectively access, use and sometimes share a variety of different forms of information.
The findings of the postal survey influenced the choice of countries for Phases II and III. Survey findings indicated that the situation for available reading materials and sources of agricultural information was worse in Africa than for the survey respondents as a whole. In addition, Africa is the destination of the majority of Footsteps copies. Two countries in Africa were selected both for the in-depth research and the examination of organisations producing agricultural information; Uganda in East Africa and Ghana in West Africa. Both - countries receive a similar number of Footsteps copies, both have groups known to be adapting Footsteps information and both have English as the official language.
Ghana was selected as an example of a country:
· which has benefited from relative political stability for more than two decades· where the national literacy programme has received considerable financial aid from the World Bank, DFID and other sources in recent years
· where the Ministry of Education has encouraged the production of local language newspapers and post-literacy readers through training in silk screen duplicators and other methods
· where large areas of the north are more isolated in terms of communication and resource availability.
Uganda was selected for a number of reasons:
· Political and economic instability during the period 1972 to 1986 has resulted in an interesting mix of educational background relating to age within Uganda and led to widespread disruption to adult education of all forms.· The national literacy programme has been nonfunctional until 1992, without government support for post-literacy materials or local newspapers.
· Parts of N and E Uganda are still quite isolated in terms of communication and resource availability.
Both were relatively stable politically, enabling the research to proceed. In addition personal contacts and invitations to carry out research were available in both.
4.4.1 Variables within farmer groups
The in-depth research investigated a sample of farmer groups, with a wide geographical distribution including the remoter parts of each country where lack of access to information might be more apparent. It provided opportunity to investigate the work, role and influence of group members, the flow and processing of information and the development and use of any locally generated materials. Considerable effort was made to avoid bias. The location of groups was varied within several geographical areas of each country. Many were relatively inaccessible, up to 70km from urban centres, sometimes without any vehicular access. Several were urban or semi-urban, the majority rural. Visits took place throughout the farming year.
The research was ethnographic to the extent that farmer groups were met in their normal surroundings and meeting places and detailed observations made of socio-cultural factors and interpersonal behaviour of group members both within and outside meetings. The researcher has many years of experience in rural Africa and research assistants and translators were all comfortable with rural customs and perceptive of both verbal and non-verbal communication among participants.
The difficulty of attempting to control the number of variables within farmer groups was considerable. However, the number of groups visited was large enough to balance to some extent the natural variations encountered and to make comparisons on key variables which become apparent during the research. Data concerning facilities, economic status of community and agricultural productivity were recorded with extensive use of unobtrusive observations.
4.4.2 Selection of groups within Uganda and Ghana
Groups selected for visits had to meet specified criteria, allowing some control of variation and permitting meaningful comparisons to be made to examine and test the research questions. The following criteria for selecting farmer groups were followed as closely as possible:
· Groups should be autonomous and largely self-regulated (ie: not controlled by a larger organisation).· Groups should be taken from a wide geographical distribution within the country thereby including different ethnic categories.
· Groups should be more than a comfortable day's journey from the capital city to prevent including 'over-visited' groups.
· Groups should have agriculture as their main focus.
· Groups should have been meeting together for two or more years.
· No attempt should be made to determine whether groups were 'successful' beforehand.
The last criterion was of course extremely difficult to monitor and undoubtedly more 'successful groups' than otherwise were included, if only because these were the ones outsiders were aware of. However, some groups visited were certainly failing or struggling, thus giving some balance in this dimension.
Unless the group name specified they were Women's Groups, it was impossible to know in advance the gender balance of groups. No special emphasis was thus given to gender in the selection of groups. However, emphasis on participatory research techniques ensured that the views of female members within mixed gender groups were heard.
Research visits of between 2 to 4 weeks were based at either one or two centres in a given geographical location, allowing for several groups to be visited around each centre. Within each geographical region, a contact person able to coordinate and facilitate visits with nearby groups was appointed.
Visits to farmer groups comprised four sections:
· Welcome and introductions with an explanation of the objectives of the visit
· Gaining an understanding of membership, aims, and history of the group
· Transect walks, incorporating some of the members' farms
· Participatory research exercises and group questions.
4.5.1 Group interviews
The initial meeting comprised introductions and explanations. Members were encouraged to relax and to allow everyone the opportunity to participate. Often members showed examples of their work achievements and occasionally performed dramas or songs. During this meeting the following information was determined through semi-structured interviewing and observation:
· the make up and range of membership
· the role of chairperson and other leaders
· the identity of individuals who played a key role in the group
· relationships and social interactions between group members
· ease with which group members participated in the discussions
· decision making and power structures within the group
· the subject matter and content of typical meetings
· the frequency and siting of meetings
· gender balance.
Opportunity to spend time in farm walks and the timing of a further visit to carry out participatory research exercises were arranged during this initial meeting. The average mean contact time spent with groups in Uganda was 6.7 hours and 3.7 in Ghana, not including travel time and preparatory meetings. The discrepancy in time is largely due to the initial visit in northern Ghana coinciding with the high temperatures at the end of the dry season. The searing heat and the lack of crop growth meant that farm walks were usually omitted.
4.5.2 Participatory research exercises
SEASONAL CALENDAR
This was used as an introductory exercise. As well as providing important background information, the exercise helped members to relax and actively participate. Members were asked to place beans on a seasonal calendar. Three topics were examined: ill-health, farmwork load and income from farming.
INFORMATION SOURCES
The exercise relating to sources of agricultural information was probably the most crucial component of the research. Group members were asked to consider all the different ways in which they gained new ideas about agriculture. Some prompting was given to encourage people to consider every possible angle. Large cards were prepared which gave a visual picture of the information source and the name in the appropriate local language. Ideas proposed by other groups were suggested and members could agree or disagree with these and add any of their own. Agreement had to be reached before any source was added. One person could not impose their ideas on the group.
Once ideas were exhausted, members were then asked to rank the sources, firstly in order of the frequency with which they used them, and secondly in order of their trust in the source. Only five sources could be selected for this final ranking. Respondents were often asked to clarify their choices and any apparent inconsistencies. The exercise engendered considerable debate, lively arguments and much considered thought in the ranking.
INFORMATION FLOW
Following the thought-provoking discussion on information sources, groups were asked to consider one or two new ideas in agriculture previously introduced by a group member. Once an idea was agreed, members were asked to think back and consider where the idea had come from, who had tried it out first, with what consequences and resultant sharing within the group.
TIME LINE
A time line was used to gain an insight into how members perceived their past and present situation in relation to security within the country and their own economic situation. Four to five key periods during their country's history (coups, famines, change of government or drought, for example) were considered, beginning with independence. This information provided background information about significant changes in their communities and invariably led to discussion about the aims, progress (or otherwise) of their group.
4.5.3 Quantitative measures
LITERACY AND EDUCATION LEVELS
An attempt to gauge literacy and educational levels was probably the most intrusive component of the research. In consequence it tended to be done toward the end of the exercises, when people were most relaxed. Answers were indicated by show of hands. Questions were asked about the educational experience of members, their literacy in both local and national language, their access to radios and newspapers and their ownership of printed materials in agriculture. The level of education reached was established by asking firstly, how many had attended primary school and, secondly, how many had attended at least two years of high schooling. The measure of literacy used assumed someone could both read and write a letter in the language. Members were quick to validate responses, making sure that reticent members were included. Results were worked out as a percentage of the members actually present at the time of questioning.
ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA SOURCES
Similar questions were also asked by show of hands, concerning the access of the members to radios, newspapers, and any sources of printed information on agriculture. Members who owned printed agricultural information were asked for further details about the nature of the information, whether it was a leaflet, booklet, newsletter or book, allowing further analysis of these results.
DESIGN EXERCISE
This exercise asked group members to consider a number of page design layouts. Material used had been taken from Footsteps and sample pages were reformatted to provide a range of typeface sizes in conjunction with a range of design layouts including blank text, boxes, illustrations and cartoons. Appendix F shows some sample pages. Participants were asked for preferences concerning text size, page layout, use or otherwise of illustrations and cartoons. Finally an overall preference was requested. This exercise was carried out only with groups who indicated their access to some sources of printed information as it required some familiarity with reading. In practice it proved very hard to prevent people reading the information instead of providing a quick overall impression.
4.5.4 Use of participatory approaches
The use of participatory techniques proved enjoyable, stimulating and thought provoking for those taking part. Both participants and research team members expressed appreciation and enjoyment of the time spent in research exercises. Participants were offered no tangible reward other than feedback from the research findings. Further appreciation was provided through the subsequent provision of relevant information, the sending of group photos and informal networking with other groups or relevant NGOs. It may be of interest to note that such was the enjoyment of participants that several farmer groups wrote letters of thanks for allowing them to participate.
A number of organisations producing printed agricultural information in Uganda and Ghana were visited, in order that the access indicated by farmer groups to printed agricultural information could be compared with the reality of what was actually available in their country.
No attempt was made to make an exhaustive search for every possible organisation, but rather to cover a representative sample. Particular emphasis was given to sources mentioned by farmer groups from Phase II. The extent of their activities was examined, together with information about any kind of locally generated materials, and the reference materials they had access to. In Uganda these regional locations were Lira (N Uganda), Iganga (E Uganda) and Mbarara (SW Uganda). In Ghana they included Wa (NW Ghana), Wenchi (Central) and Ho (East).
Organisations visited included national and regional government departments for agriculture, forestry or extension work, research stations, a wide range of both national and international NGOs, church development agencies, newspapers, radio stations, adult education organisations, printing presses, credit organisations, literacy and environmental groups. Visits were informal as the intention was to discover the types of agricultural information they were making available to farmers. It was felt that a relaxed visit to minor officials, who often made an unfruitful search for any kind of previously published material, would provide a more honest appraisal of the actual availability of materials for farmers. Official pre-arranged visits in the capacity of an expatriate editor might well have yielded more impressive results, but would have been unlikely to yield as clear a picture of available materials and priorities. In a few instances this approach was unsuccessful and indeed one international agency refused entry without an official appointment.
4.7.1 Postal survey
Data for all samples from the postal survey was coded and analysed with the statistical package SPSS.
Whenever possible, data for the in-depth exercises was entered either as straightforward numerical data or was coded as an attitudinal statement. Coding for qualitative data was done only after most research visits had been made to ensure that all relevant insights and contingencies were covered (Oppenheim, 1992). The coding was based on notes and observations written up either during or immediately after meetings. Most data resulted in a straightforward frequency analysis. Cross-tabulation was used where a statistical relationship was likely.
