Relative importance of crop - component 01
Public sector policies - component 02
Relevant institutions - component 03
Facilitating services - component 04
Farmer organizations - component 05
Environmental requirements and constraints - component 06
Availability of seeds and other genetic materials - component 07
Farmers' cultural practices - component 08
Pests and diseases - component 09
Preharvest treatments - component 10
Production and marketing costs - component 11
Crop harvest - component 12
Selection, sizing, grading, and inspection - component 13
Postharvest chemical and physical treatment - component 14
Packaging - component 15
Cooling - component 16
Storage - component 17
Transport - component 18
Delays or waiting - component 19
Other operations - component 20
Agroprocessing - component 21
Marketing intermediaries - component 22
Market information - component 23
Consumer demand - component 24
Exports - component 25
Postharvest and marketing costs - component 26
In order to overcome problems, their causes must first be identified. An economist dwelling upon costs and prices is likely to overlook problems of a technical or social nature. Likewise, the technologist and sociologist may fail to recognize important economic factors. A clear identification of problems requires looking in the right places and asking the right questions. If all the relevant disciplinary areas are investigated, then the important problems can probably be identified and ranked in some causal order.
As long ago as the mid-eighteenth century, the philosopher Rene Descartes, in his Discourse on Method (Descartes, 1975), pointed out that reality can only be understood by breaking it down into smaller and smaller parts. He suggested the need to divide each of the difficulties Under examination into as many parts as possible.
The application of existing methodologies, using an interdisciplinary team approach, will facilitate the identification of all relevant parts of any food system.
Although the relative importance of the different components of a food system may vary with the crop, country and other factors, a large number are common for most commodities. In Figure 3.1, twenty-six components are identified. In some cases they are of an institutional nature and focus on participants such as ministries of agriculture, farmers and intermediaries, and the roles each play in the commodity system. In other instances, the components are of a functional nature, such as harvest, storage and transport, concentrating on processes or activities which take place at a particular point in a food system. In still other cases, the component may simply indicate a need to provide statistical or descriptive information which is considered important for the decision-making processes, e.g., statistics on production/marketing of the crop or crop environmental requirements.
The twenty-six components in Figure 3.1 are presented in a circle format. The center part of the circle is divided in half, identifying those components which fall into the preharvest versus the postharvest stages. Each half-circle is further sub-divided to indicate whether the components deal with
a. pre-production (planning, policies and institutions),
b. production,
c. postharvest handling,
d. transformation, marketing and distribution.
Figure 3.1: Principal components for a commodity systems assessment
Each one of the twenty-six components is potentially important because the decisions or actions occurring at that point may affect production, productivity, quality or cost of the product at that or some later point in the food system.
However, not all of the twenty-six components are relevant for each commodity system. In some cases a commodity being produced in a particular geographical area may have a very short marketing channel and may bypass steps such as selection, packaging or storage. For example, industrial tomatoes may go directly from the farmer's field to the processing plant.
Components which may not be applicable to many crops include those such as preharvest treatments (component 10), delays (component 19), other operations (component 20), agro-processing (component 21), and exports (component 25). The other components should be relevant for nearly all commodity systems. On the other hand, it is expected that researchers of a specific commodity in a particular country may Identify more than 26 relevant components. The 26 components included here are indicative, but not all encompassing.
The remainder of this chapter presents a short description of each of the twenty-six components. In each case the importance of the particular component and the type of information to be collected are described. An analysis of each relevant component for a particular commodity system will permit a good understanding of what takes place at each point in the food system and how production, productivity, product, quality, or cost may be affected.
For the researcher interested in designing a questionnaire to collect information on one or more of the twenty-six components, guideline questionnaires are provided in Annex 1. It should be stressed that these questionnaires are of a general nature and for reference purposes only. Each questionnaire should be modified to meet specific needs of the country, the commodity, the geographic area, and the specific interests of the researcher and the institution s/he represents.
As with the design of any questionnaire, the researcher must have a clear understanding of the type of output desired (tables, graphs, descriptive paragraphs, etc.) and how the information will be presented and utilized. It is only after the researcher has a clear understanding of WHAT information is required and HOW it will be presented that s/he should design the questionnaire to generate the desired results. In this way only useful information will be collected, thus minimizing time and expense.
Crops and livestock vary in their importance to the national economy with respect to their relative significance in the national diet, their nutritional value, and their ability to earn foreign exchange. Crops and livestock for domestic consumption and for export can be ranked from most to least important either by quantities produced, Imported or exported, or the respective economic values of these quantities.
This section is intended to document the relative importance to the national economy of the commodity under study. The more important the commodity, the more likely it is to be taken into consideration in policy decisions and consequently allocated greater amounts of resources. Commodities of low volumes and values are less likely to be provided with the infrastructure and services required for efficient operations.
The relative importance of the commodity can be determined by analyzing production, imports, exports, and national/regional development plans.
Specific questions might relate to the following areas:*
a. Quantity and value of national and/or regional production by year.
b. Total area harvested.
c. Volumes and values of particular cultivars/varieties/types.
d. Quantity and value of commodity imported and exported.
e. Relative Importance of the crop in national development plans.
f. Ongoing or planned projects or plans which will affect the production and marketing of this commodity.
g. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 01.
When the public sector establishes developmental policies for the agricultural sector, objectives are normally oriented to increase production and provide higher returns to farmers or reduce costs to consumers. Generally, the aim is to improve the welfare of both the rural and urban populations.
Since policy decisions are often made with biased or incomplete information, public sector policies sometimes negatively affect specific social groups or the overall economy. Such is the case when government promotes production without considering the effective market for the commodity, thus provoking gluts and reduced returns to farmers. Price policies can lead to decreased production - for example, fixing retail milk prices at near or below costs of production forces cutbacks on dairy herds and increased imports of low cost powdered milk. Although the consumer may benefit in price, the product may be of a lower quality and the national economy will lose foreign exchange. In other instances, implementation of a particular policy may actually lead to greater postharvest losses or introduce inefficiencies into the food system. For example, a government decision to undertake the marketing of perishable produce usually leads to increased food losses due to low levels of efficiency and poor management of storage facilities. On the other hand, tax concessions to farmers may stimulate production.
When analyzing public Policy related to the food system, it is important to identify those which either positively or negatively affect production, price, income, and product quality.
Questions to be asked can include:*
a. What specific policy or set of policies affect production, price and product quality?
b. What policies affect the internal marketing system?
c. What policies affect imports and/or exports of the commodity?
d. What policies affect consumption patterns?
e. What taxes cause incentives or disincentives to production or marketing?
f. What institutions are involved in determining the policies identified?
g. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 02.
All countries have a variety of public and private sector institutions carrying out actions which have an impact upon pre- and postharvest losses of livestock and crops. The efficiency of the overall production and marketing system is often determined by the effectiveness of these institutions and the services they provide.
Because of the diversity of institutions, their internal complexity and their tendency to limit their activities to specialized areas, coordination and communication between them is normally lacking. Consequently, personnel from any one institution are unlikely to have a complete understanding of the whole commodity system.
The purpose of this section is to identify the principal institutions involved in preharvest and postharvest aspects of the commodity system under study and generate baseline information necessary to answer the following questions:*
a. What institutions are involved in actions which will affect the production, processing and marketing of the commodity or commodity group under study?
b. What functions, services or other actions are undertaken by the respective institutions which may affect the quantity, quality and price of the commodity in question?
c. Why are they undertaken?
d. Where in the commodity system are these actions undertaken?
e. When are they undertaken?
f. How are they undertaken?
g. With what resources are they undertaken?- human?
- financial?
- physical?h. Others to be determined.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 03.
Productivity and product quality are often a function of the services available from public and/or private sector institutions. This is even more true in the case of small farmers with limited access to resources. If facilitating services (technical assistance, information, credit, farm inputs, and others) are adequate, yields and quality of products are likely to be high. When services are poor or nonexistent, yields and quality of produce are more likely to be low.
In this section, facilitating services offered by institutions identified in Component 03 will be described and evaluated. The purpose is to determine their positive or negative impact upon the production, postharvest handling, and marketing of the commodity being studied.
Types of services to be considered include:
- construction and maintenance of farm-to-market roads,
- generation and transfer of technology,
- supply of planting material,
- supply of information for decision making,
- supply and access to credit,
- supply and access to farm inputs,
- availability of vehicles to transport produce,
- availability of technical assistance,
- availability of facilities for postharvest handling,
- and others.
For each type of service, questions should address such things as:*
a. Frequency and quality of service.
b. Accessibility of the service to the intended recipients.
c. Timeliness of the service.
d. Duplication/competition between institutions.
e. Users' opinions of the service.
f. Impact of the service on production, harvest, postharvest handling, and distribution.
g. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 04.
In developing countries, livestock and crops are often grown by farmers on very small plots of land. In the case of fruits, they may be produced in backyard orchards consisting of only a few trees. Sometimes only the surplus is marketed. A few head of small animals may be maintained as a form of savings. As a result of these production practices, a large number of products are marketed in very small volumes and with a wide range in quality. If modern technologies are used, unit costs of production may be very high and net returns to the farmer quite low.
One way for small farmers to overcome this situation, in an attempt to increase net economic returns, is to organize into groups, associations or cooperatives. The assembly of relatively large volumes of a particular commodity by a group of farmers can lead to economies of scale, improved postharvest handling and therefore better quality produce, higher prices and increased net returns.
It takes many years to organize and develop effective farmers' organizations with the capability of providing effective services to their members. In the meantime, their organizational weakness or non-existence can be a serious deterrent to development. Existing farmer organizations should be identified and their respective strengths and weaknesses evaluated.
Types of information to be collected should include:*
a. Names of farmers' organizations whose members produce, handle and/or market the commodity being studied.
b. Quality of management and administration of the organization.
c. Level of participation of members.
d. Types, frequency and quality of services offered.
e. Types of commodities handled.
f. Experiences in production, marketing and processing.
g. Availability of human, financial and physical resources.
h. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 05.
The natural resources and environment of the production area affect not only the quantity of yields but also the quality of the produce and the time of maturity. Too much or too little rain, too high or too low temperatures, strong winds, steep slopes, or other negative environmental factors can significantly affect the quantity and quality of agricultural produce.
Since product quality normally cannot be improved after harvest, it is important to initiate the postharvest process with the highest quality possible. If low yields and/or low quality are due to particular environmental conditions, it is important to identify these constraints as early as possible. This will help to assure a more effective allocation of resources, reducing the risks of constructing roads or providing other infrastructure which may be infrequently used. The object is to avoid unnecessary costs which reduce the product's competitiveness.
Certain countries or regions of a country may have a comparative advantage due to their natural environment. Such is the case of Chile and New Zealand which can produce fruit and vegetables during the European and North American winters.
The types of information pertaining to the geographical area of production include:*
a. Soil conditions and fertility.
b. Amount and distribution of rainfall.
c. Period of drought.
d. Water logging.
e. Danger of flooding during the growing season.
f. Risk of damage caused by strong winds.
g. Average relative humidity.
h. Temperatures (high, average, low).
i. Slope of the land.
j. Altitude.
k. Comparative advantages of environment as far as market opportunities are concerned.
l. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 06.
The production of quality produce requires access to quality genetic material (seeds, plants, tubers, livestock) at the farm level. When farmers cannot obtain quality genetic material they tend to utilize whatever is available. This often leads to the production of commodities of inherently poor quality, or even the wrong variety for the market. Proper genetic material can generate increased productivity and higher net incomes for farmers and intermediaries.
Sources of seeds and genetic material should be identified so the evaluators can determine whether the quantity or quality is a constraint to production. If access to seeds and genetic material is determined to be a serious constraint, it may indicate the need for improving sources, delivery systems or for conducting research and development of improved planting materials.
The type of information to collect in this section relates to the following areas:*
a. Sources of seeds, planting materials or livestock.
b. Freedom of seeds and genetic material from pests and diseases.
c. Farmers' access to seeds and genetic materials.
d. Overall quality of seeds and genetic material.
e. Farmers' and extension agents' opinions of seeds and genetic materials.
f. Government's role and efficiency in supply of seeds and genetic materials.
g. Cost of seeds and genetic material to farmers.
h. Advantages of alternative seeds, planting materials and genetic stock.
i. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 07.
Since product quality normally cannot be improved after the production phase, it is necessary to stimulate and train farmers to produce the best quality within their means. One of the principal causes of low quality produce is the farmer's poor cultural practices. In many cases poor cultural practices are a reflection of the farmer's attempt to minimize risks and farm inputs. For example, due to market uncertainties, the farmer may reduce production costs by declining to use certain chemicals and other farm inputs. In other cases poor cultural practices may simply be the result of a lack of information or lack of access to appropriate technologies.
The commodity system evaluators should identify and describe the typical cultural practices used by most farmers and how they affect both product quality and productivity.
Types of information to consider are:*
a. Farmers' motives for growing the crop.
b. Source and quality of seeds, planting material or livestock.
c. Type of farming systems used.
d. Cultural practices with respect to:- soil preparation,
- planting techniques,
- fertilization,
- irrigation,
- use of labor,
- use of machinery,
- weed control,
- pest control,
- disease control,
- pruning,
- shade control,
- others.e. Harvesting techniques and tools used.
f. Postharvest handling practices.
g. Decision making process for harvest and marketing of produce.
h. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 08.
Most agricultural crops are affected by pest and disease problems at some point in the food system, either prior to harvest or during the postharvest stage. In some cases these pests and diseases may be economically insignificant, while in others they may cause so much damage that the profitability of the crop is affected. In some instances the pests and diseases may be of quarantine significance, thus prohibiting the commodity from crossing borders. This reduces the potential for earning foreign exchange.
The purpose of this section is to identify pests and diseases affecting the crop being studied and to determine whether or not they are, or could become, of economic or quarantine significance.
Types of information to be considered includes:*
a. Identification of all economically significant pests and diseases which affect the productivity and/or quality of the commodity, in order of importance.
b. Identification of pests and/or diseases of quarantine significance, by country.
c. Identification and analysis or description of the type of damage done to the commodity by each pest/disease, with respect to:- quantity,
- quality,
- value,
- consumer demand.d. Identification and analysis of alternative methods and costs of control (preharvest and postharvest) of each pest and/or disease.
e. Identification of potential marketing constraints caused by chemical controls (toxic residues).
f. Identification of potential constraints to the introduction of an effective control program.
g. Description of ongoing or planned actions or projects to deal with constraints.
h. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 09.
Preharvest treatments, either physical or chemical, may have a favorable or unfavorable impact upon postharvest quality. Examples of treatments include such things as:
a. The gathering of cauliflower leaves around the head prior to harvest to prevent yellowing.b. Twisting of cabbage (90 degrees) before harvest to break some roots and induce wilting - this causes the wrapper leaves to tighten, thereby helping to protect head during postharvest.
c. Wrapping fruit while still on tree, e.g. apples, carambola (star fruit) and bananas may be wrapped with paper or plastic to prevent attack from birds, fruit flies and other pests or to enhance ripening or fruit color.
d. Chemical treatments while in the field to extend postharvest storage life or enhance marketability, e.g., applying sprout inhibitors on potatoes or etheral on apples to increase the red color.
In some cases chemical application can lead to postharvest residues which create marketing constraints.
All physical and chemical preharvest treatments which affect the postharvest quality of the commodity under study should be identified.
The information to be collected includes:*
a. Identification and description of physical and chemical treatments used on the commodity under study.
b. Description of why, when and where each action is taken.
c. Identification of the type of participant carrying out the action.
d. Description of what impact the action has on:- quantity of production,
- quality of production,
- storage life
- marketability,
- price of product.e. Identification of possible alternative treatments.
f. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 10.
Farming anywhere in the world is a high risk enterprise. For small farmers growing horticultural it is particularly risky. Failure to earn adequate returns from their efforts will directly affect their family's nutrition, health, and education, in addition to their future efforts to continue farming. If the farming business lacks economic incentives, the farmers' children and perhaps the farmer himself will migrate to urban areas searching for a better way of life.
The small producer of horticultural crops is cost conscious and will try to minimize his risks, especially when markets are uncertain. Minimizing costs affects the quality and quantity of produce. For example, if the farmer reduces his costs by restricting his use of fertilizers, he may reduce yields and affect produce size or flavor. Minimizing marketing costs usually results in poor packaging which leads to undesirable bruising of the product. Production and marketing costs vary greatly with farm type and size.
A complete analysis should consider labor, material, managerial inputs, and their relations in any given commodity system. For example, the organic farmer reduces input costs for chemicals while increasing costs for labor and management. An analysis of all production and marketing costs can provide useful insights into possible causes of low yields and/or low quality of produce. It may also demonstrate the economic advantages and disadvantages of using different inputs and different production/marketing strategies.
The type of information to be collected includes:*
a. Establishment of assumptions regarding the size and operations of a typical farm.
b. Identification of all types of production and marketing costs.
c. Quantification of the production and marketing costs for a representative group of farmers.
d. Comparison of costs of production and marketing recommended by the technician and those actually incurred by the farmer.
e. Analysis of advantages and disadvantages of using each type of input.
f. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 11.
When and how a commodity is harvested affects its postharvest life. A product harvested too early, too late, or damaged by improper techniques or tools, will have a shortened postharvest life. Steep terrain in growing areas may cause further difficulty by increasing danger to laborers and increasing labor costs and damage to produce. Socioeconomic conditions which permit or stimulate the stealing of food may also be contributing factors. For example, where food theft is common, farmers harvest their produce before the fruit reaches its proper stage of maturity. This practice affects produce quality.
The techniques used to harvest the commodity can be identified and described. The impact of harvesting practices on marketable produce can be indicated.
The information to be collected should cover the following aspects:*
a. Identification of who harvests the crop.
b. Description of what actually takes place during harvest.
c. Description of why the crop is harvested in a particular-manner.
d. Identification of time when harvest takes place - time of year and time of day.
e. Evaluation of how the harvesting techniques may affect marketable quantity and quality.
f. Determination of relationships between harvesting practices and postharvest losses.
g. Identification of alternative methods for improving harvest techniques.
h. Identification and description of the harvesting tools and their positive and negative aspects.
i. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE see Annex 1, Component 12.
Selection, sizing, grading, and inspection are terms with closely related meanings. In all cases the objective is to categorize the product in such a way that it will satisfy the needs of intermediaries and/or the intended consumers. In many developing countries, consumers tend to be more concerned with price than quality. In these circumstances, selection, sizing or grading may be minimal and appear to the casual observer as nonexistent. However, even in low income countries, consumers do have minimum standards and the marketing systems have evolved over time to satisfy these requirements. Care should be taken to study the process and methods used in traditional marketing systems to satisfy consumer demand, e.g., semi-processing in the marketplace (shelling peas, peeling, slicing and bagging fruit). Likewise it is important to understand marketing strategies adopted by wholesalers or retailers, e.g., to minimize their postharvest losses, marketers may mix produce of different sizes and quality and sell to consumers by the pile or bunch.
In more developed countries, higher incomes allow consumers to demand higher quality produce. Consequently, more attention and expense is given to the act of selection, sizing and grading.
In some cases, buyers (domestic or international) send inspectors to assure that the produce meets the desired standards. This is a common practice of the Japanese, for instance, when they purchase tropical fruit from Southeast Asia. In this case they carry out inspection to assure that the fruit is free from quarantine pests as well as to assure the high quality demanded by Japanese consumers. The USA maintains similar types of control through their Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) in countries which request pre-inspection.
The more selection, sizing, grading, and inspection which takes place, the higher the cost of the commodity to the consumer. Due to high standards in export markets, large percentages of produce are often selected out or rejected prior to shipping. The lower grade produce is then sold on the domestic market, fed to animals or becomes a postharvest loss.
This section identifies where selection, sizing, grading, and inspection occur in the commodity system and describes what takes place. The type of information gathered should include:*
a. Identification of points in the commodity system where some form of grading, selection, classification, or inspection takes place.
b. Description of the actions carried out at each point.
c. Identification of who is responsible for each action.
d. Identification of when each action is carried out.
e. Description of where each action is carried out.
f. Analysis of why the action is carried out as it is.
g. Identification of the tools, equipment, other material and laborers used in carrying out the actions.
h. Identification of what criteria are used in carrying out the actions.
i. Description of the relationships between the respective actions and market requirements.
j. Indication of the magnitude of postharvest losses at diverse points in the system. (It is relatively easy to quantify the volume of losses during selection, sizing, grading and inspection by analyzing quantities of each grade/size and volumes discarded at the end of operations during a specific time period.)* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 13.
Horticultural crops are frequently treated chemically and/or physically during the postharvest stage as a means of extending shelf life or making the product more attractive to the consumer. As examples, calcium carbonate may be applied to the stem of cabbage to offset stem rot, ethylene gas may be used to enhance ripening of bananas, or dithane may be applied to root crops to control fungus. In treatment for fungal control, the chemical may be applied at the same time as the product is being washed.
Physical treatments include such actions as curing potatoes in the field, washing root crops, waxing citrus and bagging.
The types of chemical and physical treatments applied during the postharvest stage will be identified and described. The information to be collected should include the following:*
a. Identification of physical and chemical treatments and chemicals used.
b. Purpose of each type of treatment and how the quality of the commodity is affected.
c. Identification of where and when in the postharvest system the treatment takes place.
d. Description of how the treatment is carried out and what is actually done to the commodity.
e. Identification of who carries out the treatment.
f. Identification and description of the tools, equipment, materials and labor used in the treatment.
g. Identification of the cost of each treatment in time and cash.
h. Identification of the potential impact of the treatment in the marketplace (how will consumers react?).
i. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 14.
Packaging protects the product during postharvest handling and divides the product into more manageable units. It also improves the presentation of the product so it will be more acceptable to middlemen and consumers. Packaging is necessary for nearly all types of produce. As general rules: the more perishable the commodity, the greater the importance of the quality of the package, and the more sophisticated the market, the more important the presentation of the package.
The characteristics of packaging materials, methods used in packaging, and the relevant costs should be determined. Types of information should include:*
a. Identification of the points in the postharvest system where packaging or repackaging occurs.
b. Determination of the specific purpose of packaging.
c. Identification of who undertakes the packaging and where it takes place.
d. Description of what is done to the product during the packaging process and how it is carried out.
e. Characteristics of the package: size, strength, presentation, color, label, availability, cost.
f. Minimum packaging requirements on local and international markets.
g. Number of times package can be used and procedure for recycling.
h. Ownership of the package, if the package is reusable.
i. Labor costs associated with the use of the package.
j. Information on reuse of package.
k. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 15.
The temperature of fruits and vegetables at harvest is close to ambient air temperature, which may be as high as 40 degrees celsius At this temperature the respiration rate of the product is usually extremely high. The higher the rate of respiration the shorter the postharvest life of the commodity.
It is often good practice to harvest early in the morning to take advantage of lower prevailing temperatures. However, early morning harvesting may not be feasible or temperatures may not be as low as desired. Rapid cooling (pre-cooling) of the product to the recommended storage temperature will prolong its postharvest life. Pre-cooling particularly benefits highly perishable produce such as strawberries and leafy vegetables.
Pre-cooling is not commonly carried out in most developing countries. Cooling for holding purposes at airports, seaports and marketing terminals is a more common practice. However, poor administration and operation of these installations frequently results in high postharvest losses. The high costs of operation of cold storage facilities often results in their being abandoned. Many intermediaries prefer the use of refrigerated containers which are mobile and less costly to operate.
Information relevant to cooling which should be collected includes:*
a. Identification of the type of cooling presently carried out (pre-cooling, temporary storage, maintenance storage).
b. Description of the facilities, method(s) and equipment used in the cooling process.
c. Identification of locations where cooling is carried out.
d. Identification of who operates the cooling facilities.
e. Determination of the effectiveness of the system for removing field heat and extending shelf life
f. Analysis of cool-chain: does product remain in controlled temperature environment until it reaches the market?
g. Costs and benefits of operating each cooling system.
h. Feasibility of introducing cooling systems.
i. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 16.
To store a product and maintain its quality, efforts must be made to control the storage environment. In general, the temperature and humidity of air around the product are the major factors which contribute to maintenance of product quality. Under optimum temperature and humidity conditions, storage life will be extended to the maximum. Concentrations of the gases oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene in the storage atmosphere can affect the storage life of the product. Certain combinations can stimulate the ripening process.
A complete assessment of storage will identify those occasions when the product is stored as well as the conditions and general characteristics of the storage environment. Storage takes place when the product is intentionally placed in a specific location to protect it from adverse conditions, or while it is awaiting sale.
The information to be collected should include:*
a. Identification of points In the postharvest system where storage takes place.
b. Description of the type of storage and reasons for storing the commodity.
c. Characteristics of the storage facility:- facilities and equipment (types and level of maintenance),
- humidity range and methods of control,
- temperature range and methods of control,
- atmosphere of storage facility and control methods,
- danger of contamination by toxic materials,
- others.d. Normal duration of the product in each type of storage.
e. Ownership of storage facilities.
f. Persons responsible for storage operations.
g. Method of operation of storage facilities.
h. Type of damage caused to the commodity while in storage.
i. Added costs to commodity price due to storage.
j. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 17.
Produce, to be useful to consumers, must reach the diverse markets on a timely basis. As the commodity through the food system it may be transported by humans, animals, airplanes, boats, or ground vehicles. It may be transported many times and by different methods from remote rural farms. It may be carried by humans, animals, animal drawn carts or boats; from a rural assembly point, it may be transported by motorized vehicle to a regional or central wholesale market; from farms or from central assembly points it may be carried by airplane, train or ship to foreign markets. Each time the product is transported from one point to another it is handled, delayed, vibrated, placed under pressure, and subjected to a variety of conditions which may negatively affect the quality of the commodity and therefore its marketability.
Types of transportation used and points in the postharvest system where transport occurs should be identified and described.
Information to be collected should include:*
a. Identification of the diverse points in the commodity system where transportation occurs, as well as the participants, and methods used.b. Description of the transportation process and the conditions during transport: enclosures, temperature, humidity, height of stacking, nearness of produce to heat source (e.g., engines, air circulation), time of day and others.
c. Distance (kilometers or miles) and duration (hours, days, minutes) of the transport.
d. Description of the type of damage which occurs to the commodity during transport and expected causes.
e. Identification of the costs added to the value of the commodity as a result of transportation at different points.
f. Others to be determined.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 18.
As any product moves through the food system towards its final destination - the consumer - it undergoes periods of delay or waiting. For example, products may be forced to wait to be loaded, unloaded, or for paperwork at a border crossing.
Delays occur when conditions neither permit nor require the immediate execution of the next step in the postharvest system. This is not to be confused with a storage or processing operation.
While a product is undergoing a delay or is waiting, it may be adversely affected by temperature, humidity or other atmospheric conditions. The commodity may absorb undesirable odors, be subjected to direct sunlight, or in some other way be adversely affected by temporary conditions or circumstances, thus lowering product quality. In some cases the delays are natural steps in the postharvest system, e.g., tomatoes in a pile at the edge of the field awaiting the next step (packaging, grading). In other cases the delays may be for socio-economic or political reasons, e.g., customs personnel may delay produce at a port or border until papers are completed and "informal taxes" paid.
The information to be collected identifies where delays or waiting occur and why, and should include:*
a. Points in postharvest system where delays and waiting occur.
b. Characteristics of each delay:- cause of the delay,
- person or thing responsible for causing delay,
- length of the delay,
- environmental conditions at point of delay.c. Normal conditions of the commodity at the point of delay.
d. Damage done to commodity as a result of the delay and cause of the damage:- in terms of quality
- in terms of quantity.e. Alternatives for reducing the delays or waiting period.
f. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 19.
As a product moves between the points of harvest and consumption, it passes through a series of steps which may be referred to as postharvest processes by the technologist or marketing functions (storage, transport, etc.) by the agricultural economist. Since it is not possible to include references to all the potential operations that may occur between harvest and consumption, "other operations" is included here as a catch-all.
The operations may be sub-divided into two types. Major operations are those of considerable significance in the particular commodity system - for example, the field curing of onions. Minor operations are important but to a lesser degree - for example, the act of placing a product in a container during harvest, unloading the product from the harvest container, loading a package onto a vehicle, or off-loading. These minor operations are usually conducted rapidly and at low cost but in some instances may be significant in increasing or reducing damage to a commodity.
This section identifies significant major and minor operations which may affect postharvest losses in the commodity system but are not included in any other section of the study.
The data collector should analyze the movement of the commodity from the point of harvest to the point of retail and list all operations which occur within the system and the point in the system where they take place.
The type of information to be collected includes the following:*
a. Identification of the specific operations and the points in the postharvest system where these operations occur.
b. Description of each operation.
c. Identification of who executes the operation and where and when it Is carried out.
d. Details as to why it is carried out in the present manner.
e. Determination of what impact this operation may have on product availability and quality
f. Evaluation of the costs each operation adds to the value of the commodity.* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 20.
Agroprocessing includes any operation chemically and/or physically changes the character of the raw product for the purpose of extending its shelf-life or converting the product into a more marketable form. The processing of food tends to stop or delay degradation of the commodity. Processing or semi-processing is a useful way to reduce postharvest losses. Agroprocessing is also an important method for increasing the salability of products which cannot compete in fresh markets
Agroprocessing occurs at many different scales of operation, e.g., grinding corn into flour in the marketplace; processing fruits into jams, candy and preserves at home; cottage-scale canning, drying and packaging; and industrial plant processing of fruits and vegetables.
This section will identify all types of processing (or potential for agroprocessing) undertaken and their most relevant characteristics. Types of information to be collected include:*
a. Identification of the types of Agroprocessing or semi-processing the commodity undergoes and the point in the postharvest system where they occur.
b. Geographical location of the agro-processing facilities.
c. Description of the process which takes place.
d. Identification and description of the market for which the commodity is processed.
e. Participants involved in the processing function and their level of expertise.
f. The dates when agroprocessing takes place.
g. Added value and additional costs as a result of processing.
h. Impact of processing on postharvest losses and markets:- reduction in losses,
- increase in earnings to farmers,
- benefits to consumers.i. Problems of supply of raw material.
j. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 21.
In the marketing of any one commodity there are a wide variety of intermediaries - for example, local traders, wholesalers, retailers and exporters. These can be further subdivided depending upon characteristics such as their size of operations, products handled and the consumer groups they serve. Since different consumer groups demand different levels of services, the functions and characteristics of intermediaries vary widely.
In this section it is necessary to identify the principal types of intermediaries involved in the marketing of the commodity under study and describe their respective operations within the marketing system. Their characteristics should be outlined with the purpose of better understanding the workings of the system and identifying those factors which may affect the quantity and quality of the commodity being traded.
The types of information to be collected include:*
a. Identification of the principal types of intermediaries.
b. Description of the principal functions of each type of intermediary and where, when and how in the system the functions are carried out.
c. Evaluation of the reasons why the functions are carried out in the present manner.
d. Inventory of available equipment, facilities, infrastructure and other resources available and/or necessary for effective handling and marketing.
e. Identification of the differences in quality if any, of the commodity handled by the different types of intermediaries and the reasons for the differences.
f. Deficiencies in the operations which affect the quality of the commodity or lead to losses in quantity of product.
g. Determination of the principal factors affecting marketing costs.
i. Others to be determined.** For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 22.
The most important aspect of a commodity system is the price for which that product can be sold. When prices are very low farmers may not even bother to harvest their crops. They may plow them under or leave them on the tree. This occurs when farmers anticipate that the added costs of harvesting and marketing will be greater than the expected sales price. At the opposite extreme, when prices are high, farmers and intermediaries will be stimulated to use techniques to maintain quality and improve presentation, even at a high cost.
When prices are high, some consumers will accept lower quality for a lower price. On the other hand, when market prices are low, consumers demand higher quality. High levels of postharvest losses are sometimes caused indirectly by low market prices. An awareness of prices in the marketplace will provide useful insights on supply, demand, and possible causes of postharvest losses.
Market information includes more than just market prices, however. It is also important to have access to reliable information on existing and future supplies, as well as trends and conditions of consumer demand.
This section should identify types and sources of price and market information available and characterize that information.
Data to be gathered include:*
a. Price and market information available:- type of information available and source,
- frequency, reliability and quality of information,
- time period and markets covered,
- types of analyses carried out.b. Availability of information on supply of commodity:
- type of information and source,
- frequency, reliability and quality of information.c. Analysis of price/market information:
- seasonal price Indices and high/low periods,
- causes of price fluctuation,
- relationships between price, quantity, quality and postharvest losses.d. Others to be determined.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 23.
Demand for fresh and processed produce varies greatly by country and by consumer group within individual countries. Particular preferences are the result of diverse factors, such as income, time, customs and religion. Low income consumers tend to purchase lower quality produce, given their interest in minimizing costs. High income consumers are usually prepared to pay higher prices for better quality produce. As housewives' time becomes more valuable, demand increases for convenience products such as canned and fresh frozen produce. Social and religious customs can be major determinants for the type and quality of produce acceptable to consumer groups - for example, turkeys on Thanksgiving Day and hams for Easter in the USA market. Many religions have specific requirements for food preparation, specifying quality content and timeliness of preparation.
In terms of the commodity being studied, it is Important to be aware of the economic status and the cultural and religious preferences of the consumers and/or potential consumers.
Proposed changes in any food system, whether to reduce postharvest losses, introduce new technology or modify packaging, must be tested to determine whether the proposed changes will be acceptable or not to the consumer in economic, cultural and/or religious terms.
Consumers can be identified and classified into categories, and their respective preferences for the commodity characterized.
Types of information to be generated include:*
a. Identification of principal markets: international, regional and domestic.b. Identification of consumer groups within each important market: high, medium and low income; ethnic groups and religious groups.
c. Identification of particular preferences for the commodity in question: cultivar, size, color, flavor, texture, maturity, acid/brix ratio, quality desired, packaging requirements, number units/package, others.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 24.
Developing countries are giving more and more attention export of non-traditional agricultural produce as a source of foreign exchange earnings. As production for exports increases, so does competition between developing countries for the same markets. In order to export effectively, the exporting country must be able to compete favorably with other suppliers in terms of quantity, quality, price, and continuity of supply. In other words, they must have both comparative and competitive advantages in the production and marketing of a specific commodity in a particular market.
To determine the feasibility of exporting the commodity in question, the types of information which should be collected include:*
a. Identification of the specific product cultivar or variety to be exported.
b. Characteristics of the demand for a specific product in each potential market:- country of destination,
- particular characteristics of the commodity desired by the importing country (size, weight, color, flavor, texture, maturity, type of package, weight of package, etc.),
- quarantine restrictions,
- religious/cultural/price preferences,
- present sources of supply to each market,
- tariff and non-tariff trade restrictions,
- transportation problems to importing countries,
- potential labor (off loading) problems of importing country and other constraints,
- reliability of importer/brokerage services,
- form in which payments will be made.c. Characteristics of supply of the particular cultivar:
- availability of commodity over time,
- volume of actual and potential exports,
- ability to meet the demand requirements (quantity, quality, price, product characteristics, transportation),
- pest/disease constraints,
- postharvest handling constraints, -infrastructure constraints,
- ability to compete favorably with other countries, -other constraints.d. Others to be determined.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 25.
In marketing systems around the world large numbers of persons wholesale and retail a great variety of produce. One can observe produce in woven baskets, fertilizer bags, new or used cardboard boxes, homemade wooden boxes, waxed or styrofoam boxes with ice and produce without packaging of any sort. Transportation may be undertaken with human or animal power, vehicles, boats, airplanes, or other methods. The hectic pace of the market system gives casual observers the feeling of disorganization.
Within this apparent chaos is a certain structure based on the precept of minimization of costs. Just as farmers attempt to minimize their production costs under conditions of market uncertainty, marketing intermediaries tend to minimize their marketing costs. They use a wide range of marketing strategies which may include packing produce in the field, minimizing investments in packaging material, utilizing public or rented transportation, or maximizing the use of family labor.
Although technical advisers and consultants constantly recommend "improved packaging, "better facilities," "new equipment," and "improved methods," all intended to contribute to better organization and improved marketing efficiency, intermediaries often find that these suggestions are not cost effective.
To determine the feasibility of introducing innovations into the marketing process, it is necessary to obtain real postharvest handling/marketing costs.
This section should generate information to permit the identification and quantification of marketing costs. As examples:*
a. For each type of participant (farmer, intermediary, cooperative, marketing board, wholesaler, retailer, exporter, etc.) identify all types of marketing costs between the farm and final market.b. Quantify all marketing costs including such items as: transportation, packaging, labor, information, communication, paperwork, etc.
c. Others to be determined.*
* For GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE, see Annex 1, Component 26.
