7.1 Policies and issues
7.2 Education
7.3 The problems of the youth
7.4 Vocational education and training
7.5 The informal sector
The conclusions are sub-divided into 5 sections; policies and issues, education, the problems of the youth, vocational education and training and finally the informal sector. What must be borne in mind is that these sections are not independent, but closely interrelated. In some instances the conclusions reiterate factors which have been previously identified by other researchers, i.e. in relation to aspects of primary education, while others may include reference to initiatives and strategies from other developing or developed countries. Regardless, there are no quick-fix solutions although the need for effective communication, information systems and competent personnel is paramount, as they are two of the principal constraints to future development.
The government have historically attempted to ignore the problems of youth unemployment and as such this has exacerbated the problem by producing two generations of parents and their children (youth), which considers petty corruption and embezzlement to be part of the culture. In the current socio-economic climate such activities are condoned, for guile is one of the principal strategies used by individuals and families to alleviate hunger and poverty.
Government assistance where it has been given has been largely ineffectual, in part due to the ideological nature of some policies, but more often due to a combination of factors, an ineffective civil service, a lack of accurate information and poor communications. Policies which diversify training provision within and between three Ministries (MLYD, CDWC & MEC), has resulted in three different forms of training VTC, FDC and PPTC. While it is acknowledged that this was done for ideological reasons, the current situation demands that responsibility for all training should be the responsibility of the MLYD and specifically VETA. This would enable cohesive policies and programmes to be implemented that would standardise curriculum, assessment and certification within the system. In addition centralisation under a single Ministry would reduce the bureaucracy and maximise finite resources.
The 3C's, command, control and communications are considered essential for the effective and efficient operation of any organisation, at the core of this doctrine is the need for the interchange of accurate information. This represents the principal constraint to development at every strata of society from Ministerial level, down to individuals operating subsistence activities in the informal sector. Numerous examples of this were encountered during the study and ranged from; Ministry officials citing statistics and records about aspects of provision, only to find discrepancies at regional, district and institutional levels, to problems encountered by artisans lacking specific knowledge and skills.
Channels of communication between the various parties are underdeveloped especially the transport infrastructure, although many of the roads linking the main towns are being resurfaced with international assistance. Electricity is currently rationed as supply cannot meet demand (many rural areas have no electricity) and the telephone service is poor. Communication by Fax or Email is growing but is an option for only a small number of individuals and institutions in urban areas. Hard-copy using the postal service is therefore the main method of communication between institutions and individuals. However, this contributes to the problems of accurate data collection, for due to a combination of financial and logistical problems, there is little opportunity for verification by line managers, consequently, each line manager accepts the information and forwards it to his/her superior who repeats the process until it reaches the decision makers. Without suitable checks and balances the opportunities for creative accounting are self-evident and while it may serve the purposes of some, ultimately it inhibits development, for effective decision making relies on accurate information. In addition the current bureaucratic system creates an inertia that operates against the effective utilisation of information, as from source to decision maker may take weeks, months or longer depending on the source and nature of the information.
Conspicuous by their absence, are higher education institutions in promoting enterprise and innovation in the informal sector. Little evidence was found of Technical Colleges, or University providing support services to informal sector operators. This may well be attributable to the elitist culture, alluded to earlier in the report, but the absence of such specialist expertise represents a serious disregard for the socio-economic potential of the sector and requires a reappraisal of the situation. There are many examples in developing countries where the involvement of HE has benefited the sector. In Ghana for instance what is now the Intermediate Technology Transfer Unit (ITTU) funded by the government, began in 1968 with the establishment of a Consultancy Centre at Kumasi University. ITTU units operate within informal sector areas such as Suame Magazine an area similar to Gerazani and the intention is, in addition to the two already in operation, that ITTU's will be established in every region. There is a need for HE institutions in Tanzania to adopt a similar approach to promote and support the technological development of the informal sector.
There is a tradition of enterprise within the country that over the last two decades has been exploited by increasing numbers of people to earn a living. However, in terms of manufacturing this has often been through copying an existing artefact rather than by assimilation and innovation. The result is that new products and services are dependent on outside producers, rather than the efforts of Tanzanian entrepreneurs. The design process appear to be an alien culture to artisans, for it is not included in VTC or any other vocational training programmes of study and neither was it observed during visits to informal sector enterprises. There is a need to promote innovation among informal sector operators to enable new markets to be identified and demand for goods and services to be increased. This could be promoted through the activities of SIDO and other agencies, but there is also a major role HE institutions can play, assisting in the establishment of enterprise and production centres.
Within the informal sector, little emphasis is placed on encouraging journeymen (machinga) to continue their studies or attend courses leading to national Trade Test qualifications. The attitudes of trainees and operators is frequently cavalier, reflecting an employment culture were practical skills were acquired by trial and error rather than through structured instruction reinforced through book work. However, such attitudes fail to acknowledge the importance of recurrent education in a time of increasing technological change and pose a threat to the future growth and activities of some parts of the sector.
Another factor that severally inhibits economic development is the absence of a maintenance culture. Throughout the country regardless of the sector, there is evidence of a lack of planned preventative maintenance, the reliability and availability of electrical supply are prime examples of problems that affects everyone. There is a run-it-into-the-ground mentality that may be attributable to either colonialism, a recurrent lack of foreign currency to purchase spare parts, a failure to assimilate technology transfer, an over reliance on international aid, or a combination of these factors. Whatever the cause, the effects seriously impede the formal economic infrastructure.
However this lack of a maintenance culture stimulates a significant demand for informal sector goods and services, e.g. the increasing numbers of vehicle mechanics who repair rather than service, or the artisans who repair and refurbish other electro-mechanical equipment. In both of these examples they rely heavily on cannibalism and recycling for their raw materials and indeed this form of thrift forms the basis for economic survival for many informal sector operators.
The aspirations of many parents and children are based on a perceived socio-economic pyramid, where a secondary school education precedes white-collar formal sector employment, for those unable to gain a secondary school place, or white collar employment, a training course at a VTC is considered to be their next option, as this leads to blue-collar formal sector employment. In rural areas, consideration is given to attendance at an FDC where programmes of study lead to NVTD trade tests. In each case, accredited certification accompanies the programme of study. For the vast majority of young people unable to follow either of these routes for whatever reason (academic, financial, social etc), their options are restricted to either, certificated vocational training at a PPTC which has little credence, or employment/self-employment in the informal sector,
The results of the study suggests that these perceptions are reinforced post primary school, through the ethos and programmes of study of secondary schools, and VTC's. This has led to a situation where secondary school leavers and trainees are reluctant to enter the informal sector, while operators are reluctant to employ them. In the case of trainees, there was consensus among operators, that the knowledge and skills taught in VTC's, ill-equipped young people to adapt to the working conditions of the sector. There are no mechanisms for dialogue between the VTC's and informal sector operators and this perpetuates the suspicion and mistrust that exists between the institution, trainees and operators. There is a need to establish channels of communication, to enable representatives of both communities to develop cohesive strategies that will be of mutual benefit.
Over capacity in some trades training, (i.e. carpentry and tailoring), is contributing to socio-economic difficulties. Traditionally, NVTC's and other training providers have been tooled-up to annually train a specific numbers of artisans, in a number of trades regardless of demand. This supply driven system has led to in some areas to underemployment due to a saturation of the market. In addition changes in consumer demand have not been taken into account. An example of this was in a small area of one town visited, there were over 100 independent jobbing tailors (many of whom were locally trained) were situated, most waiting for custom. Nearby there was a market where many of the stalls sold finished goods, tee-shirts, dresses etc, that were worn by many of the residents. Interviews with the tailors revealed that their income was derived mainly from repairing or altering mitumba (second-hand clothes). However, despite this within the locale, a number of institutions continue to train significant numbers of tailors. There is a need to introduce mechanisms to more closely ensure training provision reflects the demands of the marketplace and not merely reflecting the capacity and skills of the training providers.
The final comment to make is that Tanzania is a very multi-cultural society, yet throughout the study visiting a diverse array of institutions people very few people of Asian origin were observed either in training centres, or employed in those areas of the informal sector that were the focus of the study.
The function of education is to impart in young people, the knowledge and skills necessary to enable them to contribute to the socio-economic development of their communities and ultimately of the country. For over two decades great emphasis has been placed on national and individual SR, while the educational system and the aspirations of consumers have both proceeded, counter to this political ideology.
Schools operate in isolation of their communities and the views of consumers (pupils, parents and employers) are largely ignored. There is a need for greater accountability at all levels from Ministry to individual institutions to redress consumer concerns about the financing, administration and management of the system. There is a need for decentralised control through a combination of local authorities and individual schools. Local authorities should be responsible for the funding and maintenance of schools, while parents gain a voice through participation on the governing bodies of schools. The actions of Headteachers and staff would be regulated by this body, which would curtail many of the unethical practices commonly found to occur in schools and present the first step in raising the quality of educational provision. In this way schools would become an integral part of the community.
Currently REO's and DEO's are the local representatives of the MEC and undertake many of the functions that would be transferred to the local community, but to reiterate what was discussed earlier, their effectiveness is inhibited by a lack of funds and logistical problems so the proposed restructuring would be in the interests of the community. The role of REO's and DEO's would concentrate on improving the quality of provision through inspections and the provision ofinservice training.
Parents and pupils openly question the quality of primary education, yet at the same time demand greater access to secondary school, a panacea and passport to the formal sector. To satisfy this need, an increasing number of private secondary schools are opening (currently there are more private than state places). Expansion of secondary education is not the solution, as in the current economic climate this will only provide a short respite as the problems of youth unemployment and under-employment are shifted from Std VII to Form IV leavers. In addition the elitist culture promoted in secondary schools would further reinforce the negative views held by parents and pupils towards employment in the informal sector. What is required is that the curriculum of the primary school be congruent to the needs of both the relatively small numbers of pupils who progress to secondary education and the vast majority whose future lies in the informal sector.
Change is not only required within the educational system, but also in the attitudes and expectations of the consumers who are out of step with the realities of socio-economic life. The days when secondary education guaranteed leavers employment in the civil service and parastatal industries are a thing of the past. Many people (especially in urban areas) are aware of the effects of retrenchment, yet either fail to make the connection, or refuse to acknowledge that employment opportunities in the formal sector (government of private) have declined sharply in recent years. The problem for the politicians is how to realign the aspirations and expectations of consumers with the realities of life, i.e. striking a balancing between the needs of consumers and their desires. However, in over two decades the politicians never succeeded in implementing such a strategy, so there seems little chance in the future.
The desires of the consumers are well documented, but what are the needs of Std VII leavers? During the study responses to this question were sought from, primary school pupils, street youth, informal sector operators, artisans and formal sector employers. The majority of primary school pupil's responses focused on the aim for a place at secondary school, but when asked what they would do if they were unsuccessful, few responded, as many appeared unprepared to acknowledge their probable fate. Street youth were more realistic and considered that primary education needed to be more relevant to their future needs, and should focus on the teaching of four subjects, Mathematics, English, Kiswahili and Science which were justified primarily in terms of enhancing their opportunities for employment. SR activities were castigated as a waste of time. Youths were also highly critical of the actions of teachers and their teaching methods, in particular the lack of relevance. The responses of representatives from both economic sectors were highly congruent, in that they wanted school leavers who essentially had a command of the 3R's, and transferable skills such as problem-solving, although what they inferred by problem-solving was never clearly defined. What was clear though was they wanted young people skilled in knowing-how not just knowing-that. To conclude, the consensus from all but the primary pupils was that they needed a curriculum that emphasised the 3R's, but encouraged the development of transferable skills that would be of value in the work-place, an education that combined academic learning with the development of personal attributes and skills.
The MEC/TIE are currently developing a work-skills syllabus that will be included in the primary curriculum, but during the study the content was still under discussion. People interviewed during the study expressed negative comments about SR activities so it is unlikely that the subject will merely be SR in disguise, (although the possibility exists that teachers may interpret this syllabus that way). Speculating, a syllabus based on the same lines as the established Kenyan 'Work Skills' curriculum is one possibility. The term work skills is also worth considering. What is implied by the term? Practical skills such as carpentry, tailoring etc, or business skills book-keeping costing etc, or transferable skills such as problem-solving? Regardless, this raises serious questions about implementation and the subsequent effectiveness of the subject, not least about the competence of teachers to teach the subject, bearing in mind that they are poorly trained and non-specialist.
Similar attempts at developing a work-related curriculum have been made in a number of countries. In the UK, attempts to pre-vocationalise the secondary curriculum has met with varying degrees of success. In England and Wales the Technical Vocational Educational Initiative (TVEI) was introduced in 1982, not by the Department of Education and Science (DES) but through the Manpower Services Commission (MSC) an agency of the Department of Employment. Originally began as a pilot scheme, it was extended and within a few years nearly all LEA's participated in the programme. Although within schools there were specialist teachers, (i.e. scientists, business studies, technologists and information technologists) the linkages between school and work were never strong and eventually funding for the scheme was withdrawn. There were a number of notable successes however, not least in changing the culture of schools, the curriculum, methods of teaching and the examination system, all of which was later reinforced by the introduction of a National Curriculum.
The lessons from this are that change, (change in the organisation and in the behaviour of those that participate in the organisation) was achieved by circumventing the establishment and awarding financial inducements, closely monitored to ensure that the actions of institutions and individuals contributed towards clearly defined goals. Change was not achieved through conflict, but financial inducement at all levels, while institutions gained additional amenities and facilities, many teachers were financially rewarded through up-grading. Financial rewards alone did not facilitate change, teachers required in-service training to develop new teaching strategies and coping skills, and pupils too had to learn to operate in the changed environment of the classroom. No longer were they expected to be passive recipients, their new role was as an active participant in the learning process.
The benefits for the consumer were that pupils left, not as partially skilled engineers, etc, but knowing-how not just knowing-that. The notion that relevance was an important factor in the learning process had taken root, and this enabled pupils to develop many of the personal attributes necessary for life in the community and work-place.
It is against this example that the aims and objectives of the work-skills syllabus in Tanzania must be judged, will the provision of resources be adequate to successfully introduce the subject into the curriculum? The example is very poignant however, as the TVEI programme aimed to foster a more positive attitude towards industry and commerce and realign the culture of the classroom more closely with that of the community. These are the aims which the primary curriculum in Tanzania should encompass.
Three factors were critical to the success of the TVEI initiative, political will, funding and effective technical support for the practitioners. In Tanzania's case the adequate remuneration of teachers is vitally important to reduce the dependency on double-jobbing and focus their attention towards effective teaching. Numerous examples have been cited about the current activities of teachers (including Headteachers), but this will not be easy to eliminate as it is endemic and has become an established part of the national culture. Although tighter scrutiny by a governing body, or payment based on attendance (a strategy used by some NGO's) would also focus teacher's minds on their work.
Teacher Training Institutions (including the University) have a part to play in acting as change agents, instructing and assessing student teachers in paradigms conducive to the promotion of a curriculum that emphasises the need for relevance and equip the pupils with the knowledge and skills, to enable them to become useful members of the community.
Another curriculum area that could act as a change agent is science. The current academic syllabus is totally inappropriate to the needs of the vast majority of pupils, for pure science is unrelated to the world outside the classroom and therefore of questionable value to the vast majority of pupils. Compounding the problem is an acknowledgement by many that the subject is poorly understood by primary teachers and as a consequence poorly taught. What is required at primary level is a syllabus that is adaptable to local experience, to stress the relevance of the subject in everyday lives. In the early years, health, hygiene, the environment and later science investigations based on indigenous technologies would be appropriate.
What would be more appropriate at both the primary and secondary phases would be syllabi that emphasised practical scientific knowledge and skills that increasingly involved indigenous technologies. This would facilitate the contextualisation of knowledge and promote innovation within the informal sector as the materials and processes used by informal sector operators would be better understood. In terms of accommodating such change the principal constraints are the attitudes, perceptions and expectations of teachers and consumers. Pure science has a higher status than applied science and teachers supportive of this culture and experienced only in the chalk-and-talk paradigm, would require intensive inservice retraining to enable them to implement the more pupil centred paradigms associated with investigative, problem solving activities. Similarly, a campaign to create awareness among the consumers would be required. The relevance of such a curriculum (in terms of their children's future needs) would persuade many parents to accept change. In contrast, pupils like their teachers would require guidance and counselling to assist them adapt to the revised teaching methods.
At the secondary level, the introduction of a more technologically orientated or Science Technology Society (STS) form of science curriculum, would be more aligned to the needs of consumers. A number of syllabi have been developed by developing countries, i.e. Botswana (Nganunu 1988) and evaluation studies have underlined their potential to better equip young people with the scientific and technical knowledge and skills necessary to participate in an increasingly technological world. The principal problems in implementing such a curriculum in Tanzania appear from the literature, to be cultural and political.
The problems of teacher attitudes and elitism represents the most serious challenge as this permeates the educational system per se. University education is conservative, as scientific and technological knowledge is stressed, rather than the application of this knowledge. This has traditionally been reinforced by the practice of graduates either entering the civil service or parastatals at managerial or administrative levels. This is in stark contrast to graduate engineers and scientists in most developed countries whose undergraduate studies are a mix of theory and practical and may include an extended work placement designed to reinforce through example. This amalgam of mind-and-hand, i.e. thinking and doing, is essentially missing from the Tanzanian educational system at all levels.
Work by the authors with Physics undergraduates at UDSM who were training to be teachers, reinforced this concern of an over-emphasis of pure science. The topic under discussion was project work in schools and the first question posed to the students was, what do you think this involves? Without exception they all said devising experiments which was further refined to mean the verification of scientific laws and concepts. The notion of investigations that required the application of scientific knowledge, let alone knowledge and skills from other curriculum areas was alien to them.
During these sessions two problems were employed to illustrate possible investigative project activities and these were based on brick making, a common informal sector activity. The first was based on the following brief. You are going to start to build your first house. In your village are four brick makers, each charge the same price for their bricks and each appears to make them in the same way. How would you find out who makes the best bricks? The second was more technological and considered possible methods to improve the simple device used by nearly operators to make the bricks.
Activities such as these whether carried out in schools, colleges or university have a number of merits both for the institution, the student and the informal sector. Innovation and enterprise skills are developed by the institution and student. The institution has then the potential to market the innovation, while the student has gained an understanding of the culture of the informal sector and is therefore better equipped to enter and participate in the sector's activities. The benefits to the informal sector operator are manifest in improved quality, more efficient utilisation of raw materials, improved methods of production and possibly increased profits.
There are many examples of this type of collaborative activity in developing countries sponsored by associations, industry and commerce. Work carried out by Kent (1994) in the UK on the development of Education-Business Partnership (EBP) activities suggests that collaborative links between schools and industry promote a greater understanding of the partners activities and helps to erode traditional myths and mis-conceptions, as well as fostering good will. The advantages for teachers are that participation assists in the development of schemes of work that are based on real-world scenarios that are more likely to interest and motivate students than more formal methods of delivery. Students also gain from EBP activities, principally through some form of work shadowing or experience, or by engaging in real-world problem solving activities.
To reiterate, the problems in adopting this type of approach are twofold, firstly to change the attitudes of administrators and teachers, which cannot be achieved overnight and persuade administrators of the value of a curriculum that promotes collaboration between education and industry. A first step in the alleviation of the first problem lies in changing the way teachers are trained. Teacher training courses should include activities that foster the contextualisation of knowledge and skills. This in itself would represent a radical reform of the system. The principal obstacle identified by the literature is political, and such a reform will only be successful if there is the political will to support such an innovation.
Before concluding, it is worth repeating that any attempt at educational reform in the current economic climate that will involve significant changes in the roles and responsibilities of teachers will be resisted. Overtly teachers may express concerns about the curriculum, lack of resources etc but while there may be a modicum of truth in these arguments they mask the true reason, which is economic. To many teachers the meagre salary they receive represents insufficient incentive to change.
7.3.1 The problems of co-ordination
7.3.2 Nguvu kazi groups
7.3.3 Gender
Unemployed and underemployed youth in Tanzania represent a future threat to the stability of the country. A combination of national economic decline and inflated expectations that are unattainable has forced many young people to resort to informal and sometimes anti-social means of earning a living. However, in the process they are sometimes discriminated against, or exploited, but for a significant number their main problem is earning enough to satisfy their daily needs. This involves subsistence existence for many based on labouring, petty business, hawking, or selling food in bars, or on street corners, while others drift into crime and prostitution. These represent the most unfortunate members of society, for some people through the extended family are able to gain an apprenticeship or other training that better equips them for paid employment, or self-employment. Others form groups and begin Nguvu kazi self-employment, sometimes gaining financial and technical support from either the government, or an NGO.
The major problem the government and NGO's have in attempting to assist the youth is a lack of accurate information from which to extrapolate trends and future needs and therefore be able to target their resources more effectively. Within the MLYD the Directorate of Youth are responsible for co-ordinating youth activities within the country, but lack the communications network and informatics to perform this role. They have no data base, library, or effective means of data collection, as the directorate has only limited access to transport and the Field Officers collect data largely by local enquiry. The identification, monitoring and assessment of youth activities is therefore inefficient. In addition there are no mechanisms for the interchange of data between the Directorate and other sections within the MLYD, other Ministries, or NGO's.
There is a need to provide the Directorate with the knowledge, skills and hardware to enable the important task of data collection and dissemination to proceed. This would enable the resources and efforts of government and NGO's to be more effectively and efficiently targeted and in doing so provide assistance to greater number of young people.
The establishment of this facility would enable educational institutions and agents to gain access to information about a wide range of past, current and future education and training initiatives promoted by the government and NGO's. It would reduce the time and effort currently spent by agencies and donors in identifying prospective groups or in developing appropriate policies and programmes, and finally promote closer institutional and personal links between government Ministries and NGO's
The establishment of such a bureau could be achieved in four phases; the first phase would involve discussions between the government and NGO's to establish the parameters of the data base and consider the requirements of the library and archive. The compilation and transfer of existing hard-copy to the electronic data base would represent the second phase. It is intended that data would be supplied by government and NGO's to supplement that held by the Directorate and would enable the bureau to become operational. The third and fourth phases extend the resources available and by implication the services offered by the Directorate. During this period data relating to formal education and VET would be included.
The system would also directly benefit the youth, as information about training needs based on recent or current data would enable trainers and field-workers to better prepare groups for Nguvu kazi activities, reducing the possibility of failure and by implication, maximise the limited resources of funds and manpower.
Members of the Directorate would require training in methods of data collection, computer literacy, sales and marketing. The initial capital costs would be relatively high, but the bureau could become in-part self-financing, by selling its services and information to a range of possible client groups. As a precursor to making this recommendation discussions were held with academics from UDSM and the Directorate who supported the establishment of such a facility.
The formation of these groups are perceived by many members as the opportunity of gaining financial assistance to become self-employed. The reality is that funds to support these groups is limited and only a small number gain the assistance they had hoped for. As a consequence many groups fail, or the membership fluctuates as disillusioned youth seek alternate methods of subsistence. The main problems are the siting of the plot, a lack of amenities and a lack of entrepreneurial skills.
Rural or urban, authorities appear to grant land to groups that is inaccessible or lacking the amenities necessary to establish a business. To compound their problems, groups form with little, or no idea of operating a business and unless they have gained assistance from a donor, receive little or no practical help from the authorities. The result is that business is transacted ad hoc without direction or discipline. In many instances the need to subsist overrides the logic of corporate business and groups fragment doing- their-own-thing taking the risk of being exploited, but satisfying their daily needs, rather than working together, which in the longer term would be more profitable.
What groups require is knowledge and information, they need to be able to find out if the activity they propose to engage in, is a viable proposition and then the knowledge to manage their business effectively. In addition to technical knowledge this would include book-keeping, marketing and promotion, as these are essential not only to establish a business, but for future development. Too often the researchers were confronted with artisans manufacturing goods which they considered worthwhile, but they lacked a market. There is a need to inculcate a culture in producers which begins by identifying what the customer wants rather than what s/he thinks they need. They need to realise that the market-place is demand driven and not supply driven. Instruction in costing a product or service would serve an important function, for while acknowledging that the predominant method of selling is through negotiation, the ability to estimate the cost of manufacture would provide the artisan with a bench mark for negotiation. Attention should also focus on the need to produce and maintain a quality product, or service and that interpersonal skills are important.
The proposed information system would also directly benefit the youth, as information about training needs based on recent or current data would enable trainers and field-workers to better prepare groups for Nguvu kazi activities, reducing the possibility of failure and by implication, maximising the limited resources of money and manpower.
In the UK, the Women's National Commission (1984), emphasised that girls had legal access to virtually all forms of employment and training within the country. In Tanzania, the government acknowledges and supports these sentiments and in the civil service, equality of opportunity appears to operate, as many senior personnel interviewed during the study were women, but this was not found to be the case in the training or employment of artisans in the informal sector, as throughout the study, discrimination and harassment have been a permeating feature. From primary enrolment through to gaining employment girls are discriminated against and experience sexual harassment. Cultural expectations figure prominently in comments about why girls experience problems, especially in rural areas where the hunter-gatherer mentality predominates.
Discrimination begins in the home with the attitudes and values held by the parents. Their views govern whether the daughter is enrolled in primary school to learn, or to comply with the law, they influence attendance and such issues as dropping-out or progressing to secondary school. Later parents may attempt to force her to marry against her will.
Pregnancy, or the expectation that a girl will become pregnant, acts as a very visible barrier to equality. In primary school the girl is vulnerable to discrimination if she falls pregnant as this means automatic expulsion from school, with little chance to return to complete her studies after the child is born. Post primary school opportunities are restricted, as boys dominate the enrolment in secondary school, higher education and vocational training. The current evidence suggests that girls fair less well in the PSL examinations than boys. However, to promote the participation of girls a 'quota' system operates both at secondary and HE levels. Women are largely prevented from training as artisans in the informal sector, while those who gain a place at a VTC to train as an artisan are discriminated against by both informal and formal sector employers when seeking employment. Indeed NVTD statistics indicate that in 1993 of those who left VTC's, 93% of males secured employment, compared to only 30% of females. This is all the more disconcerting as the gender ratio was approximately 5:1 in favour of males. However, in terms of recruitment, institutions such as VTC's, operate a policy of positive discrimination in an attempt to entice girls to participate.
VTC Principals consider that girls perform as well as and in some instances out-perform their male peers, so it is not a case of inappropriate training or lack of competence which prevents them finding in-plant training or other employment. In one of the case studies where women were found to be operating as artisans, (having originally trained at the centre) their knowledge of materials and processes and the quality of products they produced (suitcases, buckets and other utensils etc) was comparable to, or better to than, many of the artisans observed.
There is a relatively high incidence of pregnancy among young women, especially in the rural areas, so there is a need for a concerted programme of family planning to assist women and to counter some of the concerns of employers. This will not in the short term change the attitudes of employers, but it represents one of a number of measures that could directly help women.
This begs the question what reasons apart from pregnancy are there for barring women from training and working as artisans? Male chauvinism is undoubtedly one factor, but there are others, the problems of maternity leave and the provision of facilities for returning mothers to feed their babies, a fear that woman will act as a distraction, sexually enticing fellow workers or clients, were found to be common justifications, similarly protecting women from iniquity was commonly mentioned.
A significant proportion of those operating in the informal sector are women, yet only a tiny percentage are employed as artisans, the majority are concentrated in the catering and allied services that tend to offer the least financial rewards. It is unrealistic to assume that the long held beliefs of male employers in artisan trades can be changed in the short-term, therefore alternative strategies to promote greater female participation are necessary.
Problems of discrimination have been encountered in many countries and one of the most successful solutions has been to form co-operative ventures operated solely by women. Within Tanzania such ventures have been supported by UNICEF who have set up grain mills specifically for women to run in a number of districts. Training has been given in both the operation and maintenance of the machinery. The response of the community has generally been supportive, but the Officer interviewed recalled that in a number of instances there has been outbreaks of Ludditism by those men resentful of their wives success. Success has also been achieved in India, where women with bank loans have established and operated weaving businesses in rural areas
This poses the question, through what mechanisms could female participation be increased in a male dominated environment? The most obvious solution is to establish co-operatives where girls could learn trade skills or join as journeywomen after their initial training and depending on the nature of the trade, market and sell their products. The Mdawi Vocational Training centre currently operates in a similar way, as the production of a range of utilitarian hardware is produced by women artisans and sold in the local markets. Communes training artisans and selling manufactured products would be less problematic to establish and operate, than service industries such as motor vehicle repair or electrical installation, for it was in these areas that discrimination was most pronounced.
One of the findings from the study of primary school pupils and street youth, was that many of the primary pupils surveyed had little idea what they would do if they failed to gain a place at secondary school. The responses from street youth indicated that when they were in Std VII they also were unaware of future career options, other than secondary school. The corollary is that primary school leavers require careers guidance and counselling to assist their transition from school to work. Teachers are unsuited to this task, for a number of reasons not least, possible prejudice against informal sector employment, a lack of first-hand knowledge of the workplace and finally their role as classroom managers, precludes them from establishing contacts with prospective employers.
This is an area where an outside specialist input is required to provide constructive impartial advice about possible careers if progression to secondary school is not achieved. Discussions with the Principals of the various VET'S all considered this was necessary to improve the quality of trainees and reduce wastage. The introduction of careers guidance could also have other long term benefits such as fostering more positive attitudes to industry per se and to establishing links between schools and local industries in rural and urban areas.
The final comment to make on methods of assisting the youth, is that the locale should be encouraged to do more to assist local youth. In addition to providing a site for Nguvu kazi activities, villages and towns could promote the activities of the youth by allowing access to sell their produce in competition with established traders on certain days of the week. In larger towns the authorities could possibly even provide a permanent site for the Nguvu kazi groups. This in many ways would represent something of a paradox, as the purpose of Nguvu kazi, was to remove informal sector operators from towns, yet times change and support, rather than repression makes this proposal all the more feasible.
7.4.1 Vocational training centres (VTC's)
7.4.2 Folk development colleges (FDC's)
7.4.3 Post primary technical centres (PPTC's)
7.4.4 Private vocational training centres
One of the intentions of the researchers was to map the progress of graduates from the various training providers in an attempt to develop a profile of their in-plant training patterns. However, this was not possible for two reasons. The first was that the majority of training providers do not keep a record of the in-plant training destinations for their trainees and secondly acting on the information provided by the small number of providers who did maintain a record, it soon became clear that many of these young people led peripatetic lives. Based on these records and anecdotal evidence it was apparent that a significant number gained employment or in-plant training in trades or occupations different to their training either through choice or necessity. Principals attributed these in-plant/employment trends to retrenchment. Visits to a small sample of these employers revealed more significantly, that many young people only stayed for a relatively short period of time in that employment. The corollary to be drawn from this, is that in terms of formal provision, the notion of apprenticeship based on centre based training followed by an extended period of in-plant training is failing to achieve is objectives.
The 1994 Act established VETA to oversee Vocational Training within the country and through the establishment of Regional Boards enable NVTC's to react to the needs of their locale. The legislation also changed the process of funding for VET and all formal sector employers with 4 or more employees are required to pay a training levy. There is no provision for informal sector representation on the Regional Boards.
Early in the study it became apparent that the government's policies towards the training of the youth were donor-led, and that international agencies, SIDA and DANIDA in particular were the leading exponents. However, the only fully cohesive programme was operated by NVTD a division of the MLYD who are responsible for the NVTC's. These were originally introduced to train artisans for the formal sector and historically their training programmes have not been aligned to the needs of the informal sector. However, in response to changes in the market-place, NVTC's are currently in a state of transition that is being directed by SIDA. Discussions with officials at NVTD indicated that the culture of VTC's was changing to reflect the need to adopt to a demand-driven market-place and that the curriculum was being adapted to meet the needs of increasing numbers of trainees who entered the informal sector.
To facilitate this transition the emphasis has so far been on the administrative and managerial aspects of centres and there is little or no evidence of cultural change within the institutions, nor of a curriculum that equips trainees with the knowledge and skills necessary to enable them to operate effectively in the informal sector. The trade curriculum consisted solely of job specific skills and no provision was made for topics such as designing, estimating, or marketing.
Visits to 12 NVTC's found them to be generally well equipped with workshops, classrooms, audio visual aids etc. Observations included both taught lessons and workshop activities where in each case, a cook-book approach appeared to be employed. Instructors were aware of the changes taking place, but had received no formal training to prepare then for the revised role of the institution. Very few of the instructors had experience of working in the informal sector.
Visits to VTC's affiliated to NVTD but operated by the various church organisations presented a similar profile. These institutions also placed an emphasis on the trainees' personal and social development. However, both categories of provision appeared to operate largely in a vacuum, as neither had encouraged regular contact with local industries from either sector. In most instances trainees were expected to find their own post centre, in-plant training and little attempt was made to ensure that an apprentice was receiving the appropriate programme of training during this period. The principal reasons for both of these apparent shortcomings, was a lack of resources and logistical problems.
There is a need to establish institutional linkages between VTC's and their client groups, in part to establish a rapport and enter into the spirit of a demand-led training industry, but primarily in the context of this study, to enable students to gain work-experience prior to completing their centre based programme. For many students their first real opportunity to experience the culture of the workplace is when they begin their in-plant training. Regular visits during the years would strengthen institutional linkages and encourage/motivate the trainee by providing an environment where s/he could practice the skills learned in the centre. In addition exposure to local industries would enable instructors to be better informed and prepared to expedite their duties.
One aspect that concerned many Principals was the need to generate income through SR activities. The culture of the institutions was such that demarcation between trades was the norm. SR activities were therefore perceived in terms of electrical, carpentry, masonry, tailoring etc. There is a need to contextualise and combine the activities of various groups to design, manufacture and sell goods and services based on consumer needs. However, the skills of enterprise and innovation were conspicuous by their absence throughout our visits to VTC's (including denominational centres). The culture of VTC's per se, needs to reflect the changing pattern of employment in modern industries where flexibility among employees if cultivated. However, one of the difficult problems to resolve within the VTC system is how to accomplish change, not in name but in attitude, so that instructors reflect the ethos of the institution through their work.
There is a need to provide a programme of recurrent training for instructors to enable them to adapt and operate effectively in the discharge of their duties. Training should include the design process, estimating, marketing and promotion. The question is, who will train the trainers? Part of the programme could be carried out at MVTTC, either by local or international experts, while at the local level links with local industries could assist by reinforcing knowledge and skills taught at the MVTTC. Based on the economic situation in Tanzania, change is more likely to be achieved through financial reward, therefore a possible inducement to encourage the introduction of SR activities based on more flexible working practices could be through profit sharing.
The resulting SR activities would also benefit the trainees, as participation would provide a production environment for them to learn and reinforce their knowledge and skills. A comprehensive training programme that aims to develop flexibility, should be an amalgam of three components, depth, breadth and relevance. Depth, implies a thorough grounding in the knowledge and skills of a particular trade, breadth involves providing the opportunity to gain an awareness and some understanding of the various activities that take place around the artisan and finally relevance, which alludes to the context and resources used in the training process.
The facilities and amenities of the Privately operated VTC's varied enormously from abysmal, to first class and the quality of teaching also reflected this diversity of provision. What is disconcerting is that these institutions that were failing to provide was that they had been inspected and validated by representatives of NVTD. However, in terms of relevance, i.e. preparation for employment in the informal sector, many of these institutions operated in conjunction with informal sector enterprises servicing or repairing vehicles. This enabled trainees to experience first-hand the working conditions they would experience when they completed their training.
The Folk Development Colleges (FDC's) operated by the government have a long history, but the quality of provision of the centres visited depended to a greater extent on the degree of donor support. However, due to a combination of funding and logistical problems many were unable to fulfil their primary objectives and tended to provide courses based on a supply-side, this-is-what-we-can-do principle, rather than tailoring courses to fulfil the demand-driven needs of their consumers. This failing was in part attributable to the inability of DO's to undertake regular needs analysis do to a shortage of funds and transport.
Two suggestions to improve the operation of FDC's would be; to abandon attempts to provide out-reach programmes and concentrate on fulfilling the specific needs of the locale. This would facilitate FDC personnel going out into the villages to provide assistance rather than the clients coming to them. This would overcome many of the difficulties associated with incompatibility between the needs of clients and the programmes run by the centre. In addition spare capacity within the centre could be used promote the establishment of new businesses by turning areas into production centres. The second suggestion, is to transfer the ownership to the MLYD and under the auspices of VETA centres would operate as local VTC's offering accredited training programmes geared to the needs of the locale. The foundation exists as centres already provide courses that enable trainees to sit for Trade Tests.
The final form of training provision visited was the Post primary Technical Centres (PPTC's). Of the 11 centres visited none was found to operating effectively. The system is starved of funds and equipment as no authority wants to take financial responsibility for them. The MEC is responsible for the curriculum, but as PPTC's are not specifically named in any of the Education Acts since the late 1970's they do not accept financial responsibility for their running. The result is that many have ceased to operate, yet they still appear on official documents, while those that do provide little in the way of practical skills training. As a consequence enrolment is poor and drop-out rates are high, as trainees soon become disillusioned and seek alternatives.
Three suggestions for change are; cease this form of provision as they do not represent a viable method of training. The second suggestion is to transfer responsibility to VETA and operate them in a similar manner to that described for FDC's, but the financial implications of refurbishment of many centres would be prohibitive. The third suggestion is more radical and involves turning them into enterprise and production centres, where new businesses could be nurtured prior to placement in the community and where expert assistance would be available for those who want to start a business or provide advice on the development of existing ones.
To elucidate on this suggestion. The lack of a innovation and the need to develop enterprise and initiative has been alluded to earlier, the PPTC's represent one possible method of providing the facilities necessary, as there are over 250 PPTC's sited throughout the country in rural and urban areas attached to primary schools. The principal amenities are buildings, (the condition of which varies from site to site), technical instructors and a ready access to the locale. What would be required is the establishment of specialists capable of undertaking feasibility studies and providing technical assistance and some refurbishment of plant and equipment. The centres would act as nurseries by providing both premises and assistance to people starting a business, this would enable good practice to be reinforced by regular counselling before transplanting them into the community. Once established links would be maintained to reinforce and develop good practice. The enterprise and production centres would also serve other purposes, a focal point where demonstrations of new plant and equipment could be carried out, as venues for trade specific recurrent training and finally act as a shop-window for the goods produced by those affiliated. The constraints are twofold, the capital to implement is an obvious problem, but the greatest difficulty would be in recruiting people with the requisite skills to manage these centres.
There are examples of initiatives similar to what is suggested, the Crafts and Artisans Promotion Unit (CAPU) is a Lutheran project located in Lushoto. The trade school was started in the 1960's has had a chequered history, closing and re-opening several times, due to financial problems, i.e. when donor assistance was withdrawn the school closed. The CAPU model was developed in 1986 to enhance the informal sector earnings of rural artisans, three centres were established, the other two are in Morogoro/Kilakala and Singida. The approach began with an audit of the locale, to determine the nature and numbers of artisans. This was followed by inviting a number of artisans to the centre for recurrent training lasting about 3 months. The artisans then returned to their homes and began producing goods of a higher value added nature. Contact was maintained with the artisans and further training was given in marketing and promotion skills that enabled them to further develop their business and with it greater financial rewards.
The main constraint to this approach according to the co-ordinator is that when donor support is removed and the artisans are forced to fend for themselves, many revert back to their old habits and working practices.
Local NGO's were left largely to devise their own policies and operated in isolation of the government, focusing their programmes directly towards the needs of the informal sector. Provision in terms of facilities were generally good and they had linkages with the informal sector though which they operated. Trainees produced a range of goods that were subsequently sold. However, there was evidence of training based on the resources of the establishment, rather than on the needs of the marketplace.
There is however, a need to improve the system of registration/accreditation to establish and maintain the quality of private provision. Checks and balances are required to reduce/alleviate the opportunity for corrupt practices in this process.
In examining the composition of informal sector enterprises, there appears to be two distinct models, the first operates a policy of 'ring-fencing' where entry is restricted to the extended family and close friends. The other, mainly observed in Nguvu kazi groups, represents more of an 'open-door' policy as the only barrier to entry is the joining fee. In the former case, although the needs of the extended family may well be catered for, family training/apprenticeship structures may seriously inhibit innovation and enterprise, as there is little scope for the introduction of new ideas, methods or processes. In the latter, a general lack of skill(s) and experience by all group members contributes to the difficulties of establishing and maintaining their business. In those instances where groups were established by skilled operators, a viable enterprise was more likely. This type of group enabled new members to be admitted that were either already trained, or in the case of younger members, receive training. The opportunity for innovation and enterprise appears to be greatest in this type of group.
The majority of operators interviewed started without any clear notion of how to operate a business, nor had they the capability to undertake a feasibility study to see if their intended activity would be viable, e.g. if they intended to rear and sell poultry, was there any other local suppliers and if so, what would be the effect on trade. One could not expect people (mainly educated to Std VII) to have the capability to envisage the need for such activities, but it exposes the inherent weaknesses in the system. Groups that have prospered as a result of assistance from the ILO, MLYD or SIDO are testimony that meaningful SR activities can only be achieved by providing a combination of physical resources, capital and the knowledge to effectively manage the enterprise.
The needs of the extended family govern the operational characteristics of many subsistence operators, but in doing so negates the opportunity to maximise the financial return for their labours. Many instances were found of groups and co-operatives that were actually communes, as they operated to fulfil their individual or family need to the exclusion of all others. This is recognised and capitalised on by middle-men and clients who exploit the plight of those less fortunate. This has led to a live-for-the-moment, here-today-gone-tomorrow lifestyle which dominates subsistence operators. One subsistence operator recalled that during the school holidays when his children helped him he earned more. This enabled him to visit the bars, drink Safari and buy more meat, and live it up, but when the children returned to school and his earnings were reduced, he was forced to drink the local brew. However, without greater checks and balances to deter corruption by elected executive members of groups, and/or the provision of elementary business skills to subsistence operators, then it is difficult to envisage any significant change in the current situation. The example clearly illustrates that in this particular instance, if the operator engaged an apprentice(s) the transition from subsistence to small-scale operator was possible. This is not to say that all subsistence operators have the potential or capability to become small scale operators, but on the evidence of the study, the potential exists for a significant number of enterprises to achieve this transition, if they received the necessary guidance and support.
The transition from subsistence to small-scale operators appears to correspond to three factors, first a revised work ethic, characterised by a more formal approach to work, i.e. regularity of attendance etc, the second is the type of the work, (the demand for goods or services) and finally, the accumulation of profit to create capital. In practice this discounts many of the Nguvu kazi activities as they fail to fulfil the second factor which is an essential precursor to the third. Operators involved in activities where trade is expanding, i.e. motor vehicles and the manufacture of consumer goods appear to have the most opportunity, but this in itself will not guarantee the necessary accumulation of profit. A key factor in maximising profit is to enlist a number of unpaid apprentices and by staggering this process, an operator can increase his profit, whilst spending the minimum time instructing the trainees.
Many apprentices/trainees receive no wages, only an allowance for meals and transport. The operators do not consider this to be exploitation, merely expediency, to cover the cost of loss or damage, but in practice the youth are expected to operate as artisans, while the operator derives the financial reward.
There is a conflict between the small-scale employer and the state, for to avoid taxation and other legislation capital accumulated is not reinvested in the original business, but diversified and invested in other ventures. In so doing the entrepreneur seeks to evade the attentions of the Treasury and by repeating the process, is capable of accumulating wealth at the expense of the state. However, the avoidance of taxation is endemic and is a throwback to the days of 'wider Keynsian' economic policies.
Overall, levels of skill are very high but the artisans knowledge of materials and processes is in many instances virtually non existent. VIMEGRO operatives cast 'aluminium' but had only a vague notion that the composition of aluminium varied from product to product, depending on the application. Similarly blacksmiths and welders have very little knowledge of metallurgy and the importance of working metals at certain temperatures, or of selecting the correct welding rod, or the appropriate flame. Although it is acknowledged that many jobs do not require such knowledge e.g. the fabrication of window grills, but when forging a piece of steel or welding a leaf-spring such knowledge is important for it directly effects the quality of the finished product, reliability and in some instances the safety of those who operate or use the product or service.
The prejudices of artisans towards VTC's also prevents many trainees from attending night-school to study for national Trade Tests. This constrains the opportunity for trainees or journeymen (machinga) to gain the theoretical knowledge that would enable them to improve the quality of the products or service they provided.
These observations and the comments made by artisans and operators throughout this study have reinforced the belief that within the sector there exists the raw materials, i.e. skilled artisans who if properly assisted could play a significant role in the future socio-economic development of the country. Many of the artisans have demonstrated their potential as innovators, trainers and entrepreneurs, but by their own admission, they are constrained by a lack of knowledge.
